Stone Cladding Engineering

This volume presents new methodologies for the design of dimension stone based on the concepts of structural design while preserving the excellence of stonemasonry practice in façade engineering. Straightforward formulae are provided for computing action on cladding, with special emphasis on the effect of seismic forces, including an extensive general methodology applied to non-structural elements. Based on the Load and Resistance Factor Design Format (LRDF), minimum slab thickness formulae are presented that take into consideration stress concentrations analysis based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) for the most commonly used modern anchorage systems. Calculation examples allow designers to solve several anchorage engineering problems in a detailed and objective manner, underlining the key parameters. The design of the anchorage metal parts, either in stainless steel or aluminum, is also presented. Preface 6 Contents 8 Chapter 1: Cladding with Stone: Introduction 11 1.1 Introduction 11 1.2 Stone Veneers Performance 12 1.3 Cladding with Stone 14 1.4 Design Methodology 15 1.5 Actions and Stone Strength 16 1.6 Fixing Systems and Metal Anchors 17 References 18 Chapter 2: Natural Stone Characterization 19 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Rock Types 20 2.2.1 Igneous Rocks 21 2.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks 22 2.2.3 Metamorphic Rocks 24 2.3 Natural Stone Standards for Cladding 25 2.4 Natural Stone Properties 28 2.4.1 Geometry and Tolerances 30 2.4.2 Density, Porosity and Water Absorption 30 2.4.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 32 2.4.4 Weathering Resistance 32 2.4.4.1 Frost Resistance 33 2.4.4.2 Resistance to Salt Crystallization 34 2.4.4.3 Resistance to Ageing by Thermal Shock 35 2.4.5 Mechanical Characterization 35 2.4.5.1 Compressive Strength 37 2.4.5.2 Flexural Strength 38 2.4.5.3 Tensile Strength 38 2.4.5.4 Modulus of Elasticity 39 2.4.5.5 Creep 40 2.4.5.6 Dimension Stone Anchorages Strength 41 2.5 Stone Finishes 42 References 43 Chapter 3: Wall and Cladding Systems 46 3.1 Introduction 46 3.2 Cavity Wall Systems 47 3.3 Cladding Adhered Systems 49 3.3.1 Continuous Bonding 49 3.3.2 Spot Bonding 51 3.4 Stone Faced Precast Panels 52 3.5 Prestressed Standalone Panels 53 3.6 Rain Screen Systems 55 3.7 Mechanical Anchored Fixing Systems 57 3.7.1 Dowell Anchorage System 59 3.7.2 Kerf Anchorage System 60 3.7.3 Undercut Anchoring System 61 References 62 Chapter 4: Limit States Design 64 4.1 Introduction 64 4.2 State of Art 65 4.3 Risk and Reliability Analysis 66 4.3.1 Measures of Reliability 67 4.4 Design Situations for Stone Cladding 70 4.4.1 Load and Resistance Factor Design Format 72 4.4.1.1 Serviceability Limit State Design 73 4.4.1.2 Ultimate Limit State Design 73 4.4.2 Dimension Stone Strength Characteristic Values 74 4.4.3 Partial Safety Factors for Dimension Stone 74 4.4.3.1 Aging and Stone Resistance Decay 76 4.4.3.2 Design Value of the Stone Strength 77 4.5 Example of Application 77 4.5.1 Allowable Stress Design – ASD 78 4.5.2 Limit State Design – LSD 79 References 81 Chapter 5: Actions and Stone Strength 83 5.1 Introduction 83 5.2 Combination of Actions 84 5.2.1 Ultimate Limit States 84 5.2.2 Serviceability Limit States 85 5.3 Characteristic Value of Actions 86 5.3.1 Self-Weight 86 5.3.2 Wind Action 87 5.3.2.1 Internal Pressure 91 5.3.2.2 Application Example 93 5.3.3 Effect of Seismic Action on Cladding 94 5.3.3.1 Rigid Elements 96 5.3.3.2 Flexible Elements 97 5.3.3.3 Application Examples 98 5.3.4 Thermo-Hygrometric Action 101 5.3.4.1 Thermal Induced Movements 102 5.3.4.2 Hygrometric Movements 102 5.3.5 Snow Loading 103 5.3.6 Induced Vibrations 103 5.4 Dimension Stone Strength 103 5.4.1 Tests and Data Analysis 104 5.4.2 Characteristic Values 105 5.4.3 Design Assisted by Testing 106 5.4.3.1 Example of Application 107 References 109 Chapter 6: Dowel Anchorage 111 6.1 Introduction 111 6.2 Design Procedures and Assumptions 112 6.2.1 Flexure Design 115 6.2.1.1 Ultimate Limit State 116 6.2.1.2 Deformation Limit State 118 6.2.2 Pull-Out Strength Design 118 6.2.2.1 Simplified Formula 120 6.2.2.2 Design Procedure 123 6.3 Application Example 123 References 125 Chapter 7: Undercut Anchorage 126 7.1 Introduction 126 7.2 Undercut Anchoring 127 7.2.1 Expansion Ring Keying 128 7.2.2 Slotted Sleeve Keying 128 7.2.3 Frame Supporting Systems 129 7.3 Design Procedures and Assumptions 129 7.3.1 Deformation Limit State 129 7.3.2 Flexural Stresses 131 7.3.2.1 Inward Actions 131 7.3.2.2 Outward Actions 132 7.3.3 Anchorage Pull-Out Strength 134 7.3.4 Finite Element Analysis 135 7.4 Empirical Formulation 137 7.5 Ultimate Limit State Design 138 7.5.1 Flexural Design 139 7.5.2 Pull-Out Strength Design 140 7.6 Application Example 141 References 143 Chapter 8: Kerf Anchorage 144 8.1 Introduction 144 8.2 Kerf Anchoring 145 8.3 Design Procedures and Assumptions 147 8.3.1 Flexural Design 148 8.3.1.1 Ultimate Limit State 149 8.3.1.2 Deformation Limit State 149 8.3.2 Kerf Anchorage Strength 150 8.3.2.1 Stress Analysis 152 8.3.3 Effective Stress Concentration Factor 155 8.3.4 Anchorage Design Formulae 157 8.4 Application Example 158 References 160 Chapter 9: Stainless Steel and Aluminium Anchors 162 9.1 Introduction 162 9.2 Corrosion and Metallic Alloys 163 9.3 Aluminium Versus Steel 164 9.4 Stainless Steel 164 9.4.1 Stainless Steel Bolts and Nuts 165 9.5 Aluminium Alloys 166 9.5.1 Aluminium Bolts and Nuts 166 9.6 Anchors Design 167 9.6.1 Bending and Shear 168 9.6.2 Shear and Tension 170 9.6.3 Bending Tension and Shear 171 9.6.4 Deformation Limit State 173 References 173 Index 175 Front Matter....Pages i-ix Cladding with Stone: Introduction....Pages 1-8 Natural Stone Characterization....Pages 9-35 Wall and Cladding Systems....Pages 37-54 Limit States Design....Pages 55-73 Actions and Stone Strength....Pages 75-102 Dowel Anchorage....Pages 103-117 Undercut Anchorage....Pages 119-136 Kerf Anchorage....Pages 137-154 Stainless Steel and Aluminium Anchors....Pages 155-167 Back Matter....Pages 169-171