Stigmatization, Tolerance and Repair: An Integrative Psychological Analysis of Responses to Deviance (Studies in Emotion and Social Interaction)

Society is faced with a variety of undesirable behaviours and conditions such as crime, mental and physical illnesses and disabilities, that usually provoke different responses in people such as emotions of anger, fear or pity. In our evolutionary past, these emotions adaptively motivated the repair of interpersonal relationships, whereas more recently they may also result in other types of social control such as stigmatization or tolerance. Dijker and Koomen show, on the basis of elementary psychological processes, how peoples' responses are not only dependent on type of deviance but also on personality, situation, historical period and culture. They also examine the implications of these responses for the well-being and coping of people with deviant conditions or stigmas. This book provides conceptual tools for developing interventions to reduce stigmatization and offers a deeper understanding of the psychological basis of social control as well as opportunities to influence its potentially harmful consequences. Cover 1 Half-title 3 Series-title 4 Title 5 Copyright 6 Contents 7 Figures 12 Tables 13 Preface 15 Acknowledgments 19 Chapter 1 Introduction 21 1.1 Introduction 21 1.2 Three types of social control: repair, stigmatization, and tolerance 23 Repair 24 Stigmatization 26 Tolerance 30 Empirical distinctions among the three types of social control 34 1.3 The present theoretical approach to social control 36 1.4 Practical implications 39 1.5 Chapter overview 41 1.6 Summary 43 Chapter 2 Evolutionary origins of social responses to deviance 44 2.1 Introduction 44 2.2 The evolution of social control 47 Self-preservation and the evolution of the fight-or-flight system 50 Altruism and the evolution of the care system 54 Additionally evolved psychological mechanisms for social control? 64 Societies and social control 66 2.3 The functioning of adaptive psychological mechanisms for social control 68 2.4 Neurophysiological evidence for the FF-C network 75 2.5 From adaptive psychological mechanisms to mental content and process 78 2.6 Discussion and comparison with other theories 82 2.7 Summary 84 Chapter 3 Mental representations of deviance and their emotional and judgmental implications 87 3.1 Introduction 87 3.2 The content of mental representations of deviance 89 Methods to reveal the content of people’s thoughts 89 Mental representations of deviant conditions 91 The dimensional structure of rejection hierarchies 97 Emotional implications of mental representations of deviance 101 3.3 The effects of additional or salient information on perceptions of deviance 106 3.4 Effects of mental representations and behavioral information on judgments of deviant individuals 112 The effects of behavioral information on judgments of individuals with passive deviance 118 The effects of behavioral information on judgments of individuals with active deviance 124 3.5 Summary 125 Chapter 4 Meeting individuals with deviant conditions: understanding the role of automatic and controlled psychological processes 127 4.1 Introduction 127 4.2 Extending dual-process models of responding to deviance 130 Dual-process views of stigmatization and prejudice 130 An integrative model of automatic and controlled processes in responding to deviance 134 Variables affecting the nature and strength of the initial motivational state and its associated expectancy 137 Motivation and opportunity to influence the motivational impact of deviance 140 Examining the social psychological literature to find support for the extended dual-process model 142 4.3 Doing what you want to do: when aggression, helping, or avoidance are possible 144 Aggression 146 Situational influences on aggression: room for displacement or scapegoating 150 Helping 153 Situational influences on triggering care and helping 157 Escape and avoidance 160 Situational influences on triggering and "displacing" fearful responses 163 4.4 Not knowing what to do during unfocused interactions between non-deviant and deviant individuals 164 4.5 The relation between automatic and controlled responses in the absence of interpersonal contact 172 How are automatic reactions to deviance measured in the psychological laboratory? 172 Why and when are automatic and controlled responses in the psychological laboratory more or less dissociated? 176 4.6 Summary 180 Chapter 5 Individual differences in responding to deviance 183 5.1 Introduction 183 5.2 Individual differences in the FF and C system and ideological orientations in responding to deviance 184 5.3 Authoritarianism and social dominance orientation as reflections of the FF and C system 191 5.4 Gender, education, and negative responses to deviance 198 5.5 Summary 202 Chapter 6 Variations in social control across societies, cultures, and historical periods 204 6.1 Introduction 204 6.2 Understanding how cultural and historical differences in social control emerge 208 6.3 A qualitative analysis of cultural and historical differences in responding to deviance 216 Category 1 societies 217 Category 2 societies 224 Category 3 societies 228 6.4 A quantitative analysis of differences in responding to deviance across contemporary Western and non-Western societies 232 6.5 Idiosyncratic cultural influences and temporary factors in responding to deviance 247 6.6 Summary 252 Chapter 7 A focus on persons with a deviant condition I: their social world, coping, and behavior 254 7.1 Introduction 254 7.2 Social world 256 Obesity 256 Homosexuality 260 Mental illness 263 Physical disabilities 264 Old age 266 7.3 Disclosure 270 The reveal-conceal dilemma 270 Disclosing one’s deviant condition: to whom, how, and when? 273 7.4 Ways of coping with one’s deviant condition and negative reactions 277 Coping responses to specific negative reactions 277 Long-term strategies of coping with one’s deviant condition 279 7.5 Perceiver-dependent and other negative reactions of deviant persons in social interactions 287 Self-fulfilling prophecies in social interactions between persons with a deviant condition and others 287 Interactional difficulties of persons with a deviant condition and their determinants 292 7.6 Summary 296 Chapter 8 A focus on persons with a deviant condition II: socio-economic status, self-esteem and well-being 299 8.1 Introduction 299 8.2 Mechanisms mediating lowered outcomes 300 Affiliation and power loss 300 Discrimination 303 Stigma endorsement 304 Performance deficits 305 8.3 Outcomes of having a deviant condition 310 Socio-economic status 311 Self-esteem 314 Subjective well-being 321 8.4 Summary 324 Chapter 9 Theorizing about interventions to prevent or reduce stigmatization 327 9.1 Introduction 327 What is the nature of the response that we would like to influence? 328 What should be the ultimate goals of interventions aimed at reducing or preventing stigmatization? 330 What are the proximal psychological mechanisms responsible for stigmatization and stigma reduction? 332 9.2 Tailoring stigma-reduction interventions to type of deviance 333 Type 1: Uncontrollable-active deviance 333 Type 2: Controllable-active deviance 336 Type 3: Uncontrollable-passive deviance 337 Type 4: Controllable-passive deviance 338 9.3 Common intervention strategies and their underlying assumptions 339 Perceiver-directed strategies 339 Target-directed strategies 345 Focusing at interpersonal contact between perceiver and target 347 9.4 Reconciling stigma reduction with basic principles of social control 351 Tailoring stigma reduction strategies to current social control practices 351 Raising awareness of basic principles of social control as a generally acceptable and useful strategy of stigma prevention and reduction 358 Exploring the usefulness of negotiation as a general strategy to prevent or reduce stigmatization 360 9.5 Summary 363 Notes 365 Chapter 1 365 Chapter 2 366 Chapter 3 370 Chapter 4 371 Chapter 5 375 Chapter 6 376 Chapter 7 379 Chapter 9 379 References 383 Index 422 "Society is faced with a variety of undesirable behaviors and conditions such as crime, mental and physical illnesses and disabilities, that usually provoke different responses in people such as emotions of anger, fear or pity. In our evolutionary past, these emotions adaptively motivated the repair of interpersonal relationships, whereas more recently they may also result in other types of social control such as stigmatization or tolerance. Dijker and Koomen show, on the basis of elementary psychological processes, how people's responses are not only dependent on type of deviance but also on personality, situation, historical period and culture. They also examine the implications of these responses for the well-being and coping of people with deviant conditions or stigmas. This book provides conceptual tools for developing interventions to reduce stigmatization and offers a deeper understanding of the psychological basis of social control as well as opportunities to influence its potentially harmful consequences."-- Jaquette "Society is faced with a variety of undesirable behaviors and conditions such as crime, mental and physical illnesses and disabilities, that usually provoke different responses in people such as emotions of anger, fear or pity. In our evolutionary past, these emotions adaptively motivated the repair of interpersonal relationships, whereas more recently they may also result in other types of social control such as stigmatization or tolerance. Dijker and Koomen show, on the basis of elementary psychological processes, how people's responses are not only dependent on type of deviance but also on personality, situation, historical period and culture. They also examine the implications of these responses for the well-being and coping of people with deviant conditions or stigmas. This book provides conceptual tools for developing interventions to reduce stigmatization and offers a deeper understanding of the psychological basis of social control as well as opportunities to influence its potentially harmful consequences."--Jacket