Special Place, Interesting Times: The island of Palagruža and transitional periods in Adriatic prehistory

While one might say that prehistory of the Adriatic was always in transition, the rhythm of change was not always the same. On several occasions, a series of changes over a relatively short time period resulted in dramatic transformations. Three crucial episodes of change marked the later Adriatic prehistory. The first one, which took place around year 6000 BC, was a transformation of subsistence strategy, transition from hunting and gathering to farming. The second one was a social transformation that played out in the third millennium BC, when for the first time the power of individuals was clearly expressed by material culture. The third episode, inclusion into the classic Mediterranean civilization, coincided with the end of prehistory in the Adriatic region. During all of those episodes, travel and connectivity with distant lands played an exceptionally important role, and certain places gained particular importance due to their unique geographic location. Palagruža is among the most prominent such places, its importance being out of all proportion to its physical size. Adriatic prehistory cannot be told without mentioning Palagruža, and prehistory of Palagruža cannot be understood without knowing Adriatic prehistory. Due to its strategic position in the very center of the Adriatic Sea, due to the mystery born of distance and isolation, due to its wild and spectacular landscape, Palagruža indeed is a special place. A reflection of its specialty is an unexpected abundance of high-grade archaeological evidence, dating precisely from the three aforementioned periods marked by radical change. Cover 1 Open Access Acknowlegdments 2 Copyright Page 4 Contents Page 5 List of Figures 8 List of Tables 11 Preface 13 1 15 Natural environment and research history 15 1.1 Geographic location and terrain 15 1.2 Geology, climate and resources 17 1.3 Palagruža and Adriatic navigation 19 1.4 Geomorphological changes 22 1.5 Research history 24 Figure 1. Location of Palagruža in the Adriatic Sea. 15 Figure 2. Palagruža archipelago. 16 Figure 3. View of Vela Palagruža from Mala Palagruža (1993). 16 Figure 4. Dolomite cliffs of the southern slope of Vela Palagruža, with Lanterna (lighthouse) on their summit (2003). 17 Figure 5. Xerothermal maquis dominated by the tree spurge (Euphorbia dendroides), left: in May (1993), right: in September (2004). 18 Figure 6. View of Palagruža, left: from Vis (1993), right: from Gargano (2008). 20 Figure 7. Dominant currents in central Adriatic, and distances from Palagruža to the neighboring islands and mainland. 21 Figure 8. View of Zolo from Salamandrija (2004). 21 Figure 9. Sea level change in central Adriatic during the last 8000 years. 23 Figure 10. Cliff collapse caused by marine erosion at the eastern end of Vela Palagruža, below Jankotova njiva (2004). 24 Figure 11. Objects made of flaked chert collected from Palagruža; not to scale (after Marchesetti 1876: Plate 2: 1-6). 25 Figure 12. A selection of flaked chert objects collected from Palagruža, from the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. 26 Figure 13. A selection of flaked chert objects collected from Palagruža, from the Archaeological Museum Split 27 Figure 14. Bifacial points made of flaked chert, collected from Palagruža; not to scale (after Petrić 2004: Figure 8). 28 Figure 15. Position of Salamandrija relative to Zolo and Lanterna (2002). 29 Figure 16. Salamandrija before the beginning of area excavation, with Lanterna in the background (1996.). 30 Figure 17. Salamandrija, plan of the site indicating the explored areas. 31 Figure 18. Test trenches on the northern slope of Salamandrija (1993). 31 Figure 19. Area excavation at Salamandrija (2004). 32 Figure 20. Salamandrija, spatial distribution of prehistoric potsherds and flaked stone artifacts. 33 Figure 21. Northern slope of Salamandrija, left: density of finds in test trenches, right: quantities of finds by intensive surface survey transects. 33 Figure 22. Salamandrija, an Impressed Ware sherd. 34 Figure 23. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic potsherds, 6th-4th millennium BC. 35 Figure 24. Partial vessel shape reconstructions of 3rd millennium BC pottery. 37 Figure 25. Ideal complete vessel reconstructions of 3rd millennium BC pottery. 38 Figure 26. Estimated vessel sizes. 39 Figure 27. Basic decorative elements. 41 Figure 28. Basic decorative motifs. 43 Figure 29. Partially preserved complex decorative designs. 45 Figure 30. Partially preserved complex decorative designs. 46 Figure 31. Salamandrija, a selection of peculiar, stylistically indeterminate potsherds from the 3rd millennium BC. 49 Figure 32. Salamandrija, a selection of characteristic Cetina style potsherds. 50 Figure 33. Salamandrija, a selection of characteristic Ljubljana-Adriatic style potsherds. 51 Figure 34. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-12 fragments of open bowls with wide rim. 52 Figure 35. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-12 fragments of open bowls with wide rim. 53 Figure 36. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-20 fragments of open bowls with wide rim. 54 Figure 37. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-15 fragments of open bowls with wide rim. 55 Figure 38. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-13 fragments of open bowls with wide rim. 56 Figure 39. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-13 fragments of open bowls with wide rim. 57 Figure 40. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-18 fragments of open bowls with simple rim. 58 Figure 41. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-17 fragments of tall-necked beakers with everted rim. 59 Figure 42. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-8 fragments of tall-necked beakers with everted rim, 9-12 fragments of vessels with everted rim, 13-19 fragments of deep carinated bowls or beakers, 20 fragment of a vessel w 60 Figure 43. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-6 fragments of vessels of indeterminate shape. 61 Figure 44. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-6 fragments of flat bases, 7-9 fragments of protruding bases, 10-19 fragments of ring-foot bases. 62 Figure 45. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-5 fragments of high pedestal bases, 6-8 fragments of navel-shaped bases, 9 peg-shaped foot, 10-19 handles, 20 lug handle, 21-25 other objects made of fired clay. 63 Figure 46. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. Basic decorative motifs: 1-17 surfaces, 18-24 series, 25-34 series along lines. 64 Figure 47. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. Basic decorative motifs: 1-33 bands. 65 Figure 48. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. Basic decorative motifs: 1-11 bands, 12-16 series along bands, 17-29 geometric shapes; 30-33 parts of complex decorative designs. 66 Figure 49. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 3rd millennium BC. 1-32 parts of complex decorative designs. 67 Figure 50. Salamandrija, a selection of diagnostic pottery, 2nd millennium BC. 68 Figure 51. Salamandrija, a selection of thermally altered artifacts, probably made of Gargano cherts. 71 Figure 52. Brown Maiolica chert: mt 30i, photographs (left) and microphotographs of thin sections in transmitted polarized light (right). 76 Figure 53. Brown Maiolica chert, top and middle rows: mt 30e, photographs (left) and microphotographs of thin sections in transmitted polarized light (right), arrows indicate planktonic foraminifers; bottom row: mt 30ep, photograph (left) and microphotogr 76 Figure 54. Brown Maiolica chert, top and middle rows: mt 30c, photographs (left) and microphotographs of thin sections in transmitted polarized light (right); bottom row: mt 30cp, photograph (left) and microphotograph of polished section in reflected ligh 77 Figure 55. Brown Maiolica chert: mt 30a, photograph (left) and microphotograph of thin sections in transmitted polarized light (right). 78 Figure 56. Gray Maiolica chert: mt 32a, photographs (left) and microphotographs of thin sections in transmitted polarized light (middle) and cross-polarized light (right). 78 Figure 57. Black Maiolica chert: mt 31c, photographs (left) and microphotographs of thin sections in transmitted polarized light (right). 79 Figure 58. Maiolica conglomerate chert: mt 33ap, photographs (left and middle) and microphotographs of thin sections in transmitted polarized light (right); a flake with nodular cortex (1), patinated nodule core (2) and lithoclasts incorporated in cortex 80 Figure 59. Scaglia red chert: mt 35a, photographs (left) and microphotographs of thin sections in transmitted polarized light (right). 80 Figure 60. Silicified detritic calcarenite, top row: mt 39dp, photograph (left), microphotograph of polished section in reflected light (middle), and microphotograph of thin section in polarized light (right); left: ferrous patina and soil particles in ho 81 Figure 61. Palagruža chert: mt 17b, photographs (left) and microphotographs of thin sections in transmitted polarized light (right). 82 Figure 62. Salamandrija, 1-2 cores, 3 blade segment terminating in hinge fracture, 4-6 overshot blades. 87 Figure 63. Salamandrija, 1-24 selected prismatic blades and blade segments. 88 Figure 64. Prismatic blades width histogram and boxplot. 89 Figure 65. Point types and measurement. 90 Figure 66. Salamandrija, bifacial points, 1-17 Type 1, 18-22 Type 2, 23-44 Type 3, 45-54 Type 4, 55-60 Type 5, 61 indeterminate, 62 preform. 91 Figure 67. Weight and relative thickness of Type 1 points compared to points of all other types (average, 1SD range, minimum and maximum). 92 Figure 68. Point size by type (average length and width with their respective 1SD ranges). 92 Figure 69. Point elongation by type (average, 1SD range, minimum and maximum). 92 Figure 70. Base length relative to length and width of the point, by type (average, 1SD range, minimum and maximum). 93 Figure 71. Proposed reconstructions of arrows tipped by bifacial points (1-5) and composite points made of microlithic crescents (7, 8) in combination with a bifacial point (6) and a transversal point (9) (illustration: Iva Patarčec). 94 Figure 72. Salamandrija, 1-45 microlithic crescents, 46 transversal point. 95 Figure 73. Size of microlithic crescents. 96 Figure 74. Salamandrija, 1-14 retouched blades. 97 Figure 75. Salamandrija, 1-3 oblique truncations on blades, 4 retouched blade segment, 5-6 bifacially retouched blade segments, 7 end scraper on retouched flake, 8 and 10 ‘pointed blades’, 9 gunflint. 98 Figure 76. Map showing obsidian sources in Europe and the Mediterranean. 99 Figure 77. Map showing sites near the Adriatic Sea with ten or more obsidian artifacts tested. 99 Figure 78. Conducting pXRF analyses on obsidian in Croatia. 100 Figure 79. Graph showing the elemental groups for the different sources (Carpathian, Lipari, Palmarola, Pantelleria, Sardinia, Melos) and the Palagruža artifacts. 100 Figure 80. Graph showing the subsources for Lipari, along with 45 of the artifacts tested. 100 Figure 81. Graph showing the two Melos subgroups, along with four artifacts tested. 100 Figure 82. Salamandrija, obsidian artifacts. 102 Figure 83. Obsidian prismatic bladelets width histogram and boxplot. 103 Figure 84. Salamandrija, ground stone objects. 104 Figure 85. Proposed reconstructions of wristguards attached to the inside or the outside of the lower arm (illustration: Iva Patarčec). 105 Figure 86. Wristguards from eastern Adriatic sites, 1 Bitelić (Marović 1994: Figure 5: 2; Milošević 1998: Figure 216), 2 Kekezova gomila (Marović 1994: Figure 5: 1), 3 and 4 Ravlića pećina (Marijanović 1981: Plate 5: 4, 5), 5 Grotta dei Ciclami (Gilli and 106 Figure 87. Artifacts made of mollusk shell, 1 discoid bead made probably of Spondylus gaederopus, 2 pendant made of Luria lurida. 107 Figure 88. A couple of Luria lurida shells collected from a beach in Pelješac Peninsula. 107 Figure 89. Approximate time spans of temporally sensitive find categories. 108 Figure 90. Jankotova njiva, view towards east with Mala Palagruža in the background (1993). 109 Figure 91. Plan of Jankotova njiva. 110 Figure 92. Jankotova njiva, eastern edge of the site (2004). 110 Figure 93. Jankotova njiva, test excavation (1993). 111 Figure 94. Jankotova njiva, a flaked stone artifact photographed in situ on the surface of the site (2004). 111 Figure 95. Jankotova njiva, a selection of finds, 1-5 pottery, 6-7 chert. 112 Figure 96. View of the central part of the island from Lanterna, with marked positions of archaeological sites (2004). 113 Figure 97. Pod lozje, an Impressed Ware sherd. 114 Figure 98. Stradun, a selection of diagnostic potsherds. 115 Figure 99. Mala Palagruža, left: part of a chert nodule contained in carbonate host rock; right: a rock hollow with traces of chert (2004). 115 Figure 100. Location of remote islands in the Adriatic Sea. 119 Figure 101. Remote islands of the Adriatic drawn to the same scale. 121 Figure 102. Uvala Duga, site SU002, fragments of an open bowl with wide rim, decorated on the exterior, interior, and top of the rim by incision, excision and incrustation. 124 Figure 103. Diachronic changes in the abundance of archaeological evidence for remote Adriatic islands 125 Figure 104. Characteristic Ljubljana-Adriatic style pottery: 1, 5-8, 10, 12 Ig (after Korošec and Korošec 1969 and Dimitrijević 1979a); 2-4, 9 Otišić (after Milošević and Govedarica 1986); 11 Vaganačka pećina (after Forenbaher and Vranjican 1985); 13 Mari 136 Figure 105. Map of Ljubljana-Adriatic pottery style distribution. Numbers on the map correspond to numbers of sites in the Appendix. 137 Figure 106. Characteristic Cetina style pottery: 1 Škarin Samograd (after Marović and Čović 1983); 2, 5, 6, 8-10, 12 Lukovača (after Marović 1991); 3 Ljubomir (after Marović and Čović 1983); 4 Rudine (after Marović 1991); 7 Pisciulo (after Cataldo 1996); 140 Figure 107. Map of Cetina pottery style distribution. Numbers on the map correspond to numbers of sites in the Appendix. 141 Figure 108. Characteristic pottery decorated by coarse incision: 1 Otišić (after Milošević and Govedarica 1986); 2 Gomile više lada (after Marović and Čović 1983). 143 Figure 109. Map of coarse incised pottery distribution. Numbers on the map correspond to numbers of sites in the Appendix. 144 Figure 110. Radiocarbon dates for Ljubljana-Adriatic and Cetina pottery styles (probability density distributions and calibrated 1SD ranges). 152 Figure 111. Modeled start and end dates for Ljubljana-Adriatic and Cetina styles (probability density distributions and calibrated 1SD ranges). 153 Figure 112. Modeled dates for the transition from Ljubljana-Adriatic to Cetina style (probability density distributions and calibrated 1SD ranges). 153 Figure 113. Radiocarbon dates for Ljubljana-Adriatic style (probability density distributions and calibrated 1SD ranges) grouped by region. Dates from mixed (Ljubljana-Adriatic and Cetina) contexts of Grapčeva and Nakovana caves have been included. Only t 154 Figure 114. Geographic location of sites covered by this overview (numbers on the map correspond to numbers in the list). 164 2 29 2.1.1. Archaeological investigations 1992-2009 29 2.1.1.1 Surface survey 30 2.1.1.2 Test trenching 30 2.1.1.3 Area excavation 30 2.1.1.4. Spatial distribution of finds 32 Sites 29 2.1. Salamandrija 29 2.1.2. Pottery 34 2.1.2.1 Pottery from sixth to fourth millennium BC 34 2.1.2.2 Pottery from third millennium BC 36 2.1.2.2.1 Vessel shapes and sizes 36 2.1.2.2.1.1 Open bowls with wide rim 36 2.1.2.2.1.2 Open bowls with simple rim 38 2.1.2.2.1.3 Tall-necked beakers with everted rim 39 2.1.2.2.1.4 Vessels with everted rim 40 2.1.2.2.1.5 Deep carinated bowls or beakers 40 2.1.2.2.1.6 Vessel with constricted cylindrical neck 40 2.1.2.2.1.7 Unclassified vessel parts 40 2.1.2.2.2 Vessel decoration 41 2.1.2.2.2.1 Basic decorative elements 41 2.1.2.2.2.2 Basic decorative motifs 42 2.1.2.2.2.3 Complex decorative designs 44 2.1.2.2.2.4 Location and frequency of decoration 44 2.1.2.2.3 Concluding remarks about the third millennium BC pottery 47 2.1.2.3 Pottery from second and first millennium BC 48 2.1.2.4 Whence the pottery on Palagruža? 51 2.1.3 Flaked stone artifacts 69 2.1.3.1 Origin of the raw material for flaked stone artifacts by Zlatko Perhoč 69 2.1.3.1.1 Methods 69 2.1.3.1.2 Material types of Palagruža lithics 71 2.1.3.1.2.1 Indeterminate and thermally altered cherts 71 2.1.3.1.2.2 Patinated cherts 72 2.1.3.1.3 Artifacts made of western Adriatic raw materials 73 2.1.3.1.3.1 Maiolica cherts 73 2.1.3.1.3.2 Maiolica conglomerate cherts 79 2.1.3.1.3.3 Scaglia red cherts 79 2.1.3.1.3.4 Silicified calcarenites 80 2.1.3.1.4 Artifacts made of raw material from Palagruža 81 2.1.3.1.5 Artifacts made of radiolarite 83 2.1.3.1.6 Discussion and conclusion 83 Acknowledgements 85  69 2.1.3.2 Major technological categories of artifacts 85 2.1.3.3 Cores and evidence of on-site core reduction 85 2.1.3.4 Blades 86 2.1.3.5 Bifacial points 89 2.1.3.5.1 Type 1: tanged point 89 2.1.4.5.2. Type 2: concave base point 90 2.1.3.5.3 Type 3: notched point with wide barbs 92 2.1.3.5.4 Type 4: notched point with long barbs 93 2.1.3.5.5 Type 5: tanged and barbed point 93 2.1.3.5.6 Indicators of point production and use 94 2.1.3.6 Transversal point 95 2.1.3.7 Microlithic crescents 95 2.1.3.8 Other tools made of chert 96 2.1.3.9 Obsidian artifacts 98 2.1.3.9.1 Origin of the raw material by Robert H. Tykot 98 2.1.3.9.1.1 Obsidian in Europe and the Mediterranean 98 2.1.3.9.1.2 Analytical methods 99 2.1.3.9.1.3. Results 100 2.1.3.9.2 Technology and typology of the artifacts 102 2.1.3.9.3 Temporal attribution of the finds 103 2.1.4 Ground stone artifacts 104 2.1.5 Artifacts made of mollusk shells 107 2.1.6 Diachronic change in intensity of activities 108 2.2 Other sites 109 2.2.1 Jankotova njiva 109 2.2.2 Pod lozje 113 2.2.3 Vartli 114 2.2.4 Stradun 114 2.2.5 Mala Palagruža 114 Table 1. Quantities of collected pottery by site 34 Table 2. Temporally sensitive diagnostic potsherds from Salamandrija by period 34 Table 3. Estimated minimal number of vessels and decorated vessels from the 3rd millennium BC 38 Table 4. Frequency of decorative techniques on potsherds from the 3rd millennium BC 41 Table 5. Third millennium BC pottery assemblage break-down by pottery style 48 Table 6. Quantities of flaked stone artifacts by site 69 Table 7. Assemblage break-down by main raw material categories 70 Table 8. Assemblage break-down by material type 75 Table 9. Assemblage break-down by raw material origin 83 Table 10. Chert assemblage break-down (number and frequency) 85 Table 11. Number and frequency of primary and secondary debitage 86 Table 12. Frequency of points by type 89 Table 13. Elemental data (in ppm) and source assignments for the artifacts tested 101 Table 14. Obsidian assemblage break-down (number and frequency) 103 3 117 3.1.1 Why set off for a small, remote island? 117 Palagruža and Adriatic prehistory 117 3.1 Small islands and great journeys 117 3.1.2 Adriatic islands 118 3.1.3 Remote islands 119 3.1.3.1 Jabuka 120 3.1.3.2 Pianosa 120 3.1.3.3 Palagruža 121 3.1.3.4 Tremiti 122 3.1.3.5 Sušac 123 3.1.3.6 Svetac 124 3.1.4 Patterns of diachronic change 124 3.1.4.1 Transition to farming 125 3.1.4.2 The rise of elites 125 3.1.5 Remote islands and long distance interaction 126 3.2 Palagruža and early farming 126 3.2.1 Palagruža before the transition to farming 126 3.2.1.1 An object made of gabbro from Vela Cave 127 3.2.1.2 Perforated Columbella rustica 128 3.2.2 The spread of farming 128 3.2.2.1 The role of Palagruža in the spread of farming 128 3.2.2.2 Seafarers and their craft 130 3.2.3 Circulation of chert artifacts 131 3.3 Pottery styles of the third millennium BC 133 3.3.1 Incised, impressed and incrusted decoration 134 3.3.2 Ljubljana-Adriatic style 134 3.3.2.1 Geographic distribution and site types 135 3.3.2.2 Spatial and temporal variability 138 3.3.3 Cetina style 138 3.3.3.1 Geographic distribution and site types 139 3.3.3.2 Spatial and temporal variability 142 3.3.4 Other kinds of decoration 143 3.3.4.1 Coarse incision 143 3.3.4.2 Furchenstich incision 144 3.3.4.3 Excision 144 3.3.4.4 Cord impression 145 3.3.5 Dating of Ljubljana-Adriatic and Cetina styles 145 3.3.5.1 Association with metal finds 146 3.3.5.2 Stratigraphic relationships 147 3.3.5.3 Radiocarbon dates 149 3.3.5.4 Concluding remarks on dating of the pottery styles 154 3.4 Palagruža in third millennium BC 155 3.4.1 Transformation of prehistoric Europe 155 3.4.2 Seafarers and their craft 157 3.4.3 Settlement? 158 3.4.4 Fort? 159 3.4.5 Chipping station? 159 3.4.6 Cemetery? 160 3.4.7 Ritual focus? 161 3.4.8 Palagruža after year 2000 BC 162 Table 15. Descriptive statistics for the remote Adriatic islands 120 Table 16. Radiocarbon dates for Ljubljana-Adriatic and Cetina style pottery 150 4 164 Appendix to Chapter 3.3: List of Sites 164 4.1 Southern Italy 170 4.2 Northern Italy 170 4.3 Trieste Karst 170 4.4 Slovenian Karst 172 4.5 Central Slovenia 172 4.6 Istria 173 4.7 Croatian Littoral and the Kvarner Islands 173 4.8 Upper reaches of Cetina River 174 4.9 Dalmatinska Zagora 178 4.10 Northern Dalmatia 181 4.11 Middle Dalmatia 182 4.12 Southern Dalmatia 183 4.13 Western Herzegovina 184 4.14 Eastern Herzegovina 185 4.15 Central Bosnia 186 4.16 Eastern Bosnia 186 4.17 Western Serbia 186 4.18 Montenegro 187 4.19 Albania 188 4.20 Western Greece 188 4.21 Center of the Adriatic 189 Bibliography 190 Table 17. Basic information about sites covered by this overview 169 Adriatic sailing,prehistory,Palaeolithic,Neolithic,Palagruza,Palagruža,Dalmatian prehistory While one might say that prehistory of the Adriatic was always in transition, the rhythm of change was not always the same. On several occasions, a series of changes over a relatively short time period resulted in dramatic transformations. Three crucial episodes of change marked the later Adriatic prehistory. The first one, which took place around year 6000 BC, was a transformation of subsistence strategy, transition from hunting and gathering to farming. The second one was a social transformation that played out in the third millennium BC, when for the first time the power of individuals was clearly expressed by material culture. The third episode, inclusion into the classic Mediterranean civilization, coincided with the end of prehistory in the Adriatic region. During all of those episodes, travel and connectivity with distant lands played an exceptionally important role, and certain places gained particular importance due to their unique geographic location. Palagruza is among the most prominent such places, its importance being out of all proportion to its physical size. Adriatic prehistory cannot be told without mentioning Palagruza, and prehistory of Palagruza cannot be understood without knowing Adriatic prehistory. Due to its strategic position in the very center of the Adriatic Sea, due to the mystery born of distance and isolation, due to its wild and spectacular landscape, Palagruza indeed is a special place. A reflection of its specialty is an unexpected abundance of high-grade archaeological evidence, dating precisely from the three aforementioned periods marked by radical change