Southern Iraq's Marshes: Their Environment and Conservation (Coastal Research Library Book 36)

The Mesopotamian marshes are important for economic, social, and biodiversity values and have been home to indigenous human communities for millennia. They are regarded as a legendary site. This multi-authored book contains chapters written by world-renowned experts in their field. Both basic and applied information are made available, making the book a must-have for a wide spectrum of users. For example, an understanding of the natural and the social aspects of the marshes, as described here, is an obvious prerequisite for a pest management plan in this area. Scholars interested in wetlands can use this book as a guide to compare different wetlands areas in Asia. The bibliography section contains valuable references to the marsh areas and research in the field. This book serves as an up-to-date comprehensive source of information on different aspects of the southern marshes of Iraq and is aimed at academic scholars, environmentalists, and decision makers. Preface Acknowledgements Contents Contributors About the Editor Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Geological Perspectives 1.2 Hydrology and Precipitation Aspects 1.3 The Major Wetland Divisions 1.3.1 Al-Hammar Marshes 1.3.2 The Central Marshes 1.3.3 Al-Hawizeh Marshes 1.4 Settlement 1.5 The People of the Marsh Area 1.6 Flora and Fauna 1.7 Impacts on the Marsh Area 1.7.1 Habitat Loss 1.7.2 Refugees 1.7.3 Wildlife Decline and Extinction 1.7.4 Regional Weather Alteration References Section I: Historical Perspectives Chapter 2: Cities in the Water: Waterscape and Evolution of Urban Civilisation in Southern Mesopotamia as Seen from Tell Zurgh... References Chapter 3: Reed-Swamps in the Sumerian Material Culture: Archaeological, Archaeobotanical and Experimental Insights from the A... 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Abu Tbeirah and the Marshes 3.3 Reed-Swamps in Abu Tbeirah ́s Material Culture 3.3.1 State of Preservation and Excavation Methodology 3.3.2 Basketry 3.3.2.1 Baskets and Other Containers 3.3.2.2 Reed-Mats 3.3.3 Reeds as Architectural Elements 3.3.4 Further Evidences of the Use of Swamp Herbs 3.4 Archaeobotanical Analyses 3.5 Abu Tbeirah ́s Evidence Between Sumerians and Ma ́dan 3.6 Experimental Reproduction of Selected Artefacts 3.6.1 Simple Plaited Baskets IDs 1-2 3.6.2 Twined Baskets IDs 5-6 3.6.3 Twill Plaited Mats IDs 4 and 8 3.7 Conclusions References Chapter 4: Human Ecology of the Marshes 4.1 State and Anti-state in Ancient and Medieval Iraq, c. 3000 BC to 1858 4.2 High Modernism, Enclosure, and Displacement, 1858 to 1980 4.3 War, Development, and the Destruction of the Marshes, 1968-1995 4.4 Conclusion References Chapter 5: Role of Women in Ancient Mesopotamia and the Southern Marshes of Iraq: A Comparative Account 5.1 Introduction 5.2 How the Comparison of the Professions of Women in Ancient Mesopotamia and Present Marsh Arab Society Is Discussed in the P... 5.2.1 Queens and High-Ranking Women 5.2.1.1 Royal or High-Ranking Women Engaged in Cultic Activities 5.2.1.2 The Priestess Women 5.2.2 Court Ladies and Female Attendants 5.2.3 The Profession of Mother and Wet Nurse 5.2.4 Female Kitchen Personnel, Female Brewers, and Women in a Garden 5.2.5 Female Textile Workers 5.2.6 Midwives 5.3 Remarks References Section II: Environmental Factors Chapter 6: Physical and Chemical Characters of Mesopotamian Marshes: A Short Review 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Review of the Physical and Chemical Characteristics of the Southern Marshes of Iraq Before the Draining 6.2.1 Light 6.2.2 pH Value 6.2.3 Salinity 6.2.4 Nutrients 6.2.5 Nitrogen 6.2.6 Phosphorus 6.2.7 Silicate 6.3 A Review of the Physical and Chemical Characteristics of the Southern Marshes of Iraq After the Draining 6.3.1 Abu-Zirig Marsh 6.3.2 The Other Marshes in South of Iraq 6.4 Conclusions References Chapter 7: Hydrologic Structures in the Tigris-Euphrates Basin and Their Impact on the Vitality of the Marshes 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Hydrologic Setting of the Marshes: Natural Hydrologic Conditions (Pre-restoration) 7.3 Hydrologic Setting of the Marshes: Current Hydrologic Conditions (Recent Water Resources Development) 7.4 Impact of Dam Construction on the Hydrology of the Marshes 7.5 Future Scenario for the Marshes Hydrology Within the Framework of Existing and Planned Hydraulic Structures in the Tigris-... References Chapter 8: Importance of Hydrological and Hydrogeological Studies in Wetlands: Examples from Turkey 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Hydrological Cycle and Hydrogeological Benefits of Wetlands 8.3 Hydrological and Hydrogeological Work Methods in Wetlands 8.4 Hydrological and Hydrogeological Studies in Turkey 8.5 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Use of Multispectral and Hyperspectral Satellite Imagery for Monitoring Waterbodies and Wetlands 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Proposed Hybrid Method 9.2.1 Global Predictor Phase 9.2.2 Analysis Phase 9.2.3 Decision Phase 9.2.3.1 Training Data Generation 9.2.3.2 Tuning SVM ́s Kernel Parameters 9.2.3.3 Binary Change Map 9.2.3.4 Amplitude of Change 9.2.3.5 Extracting ``Multiple-Change ́ ́ Information 9.3 Methodology 9.3.1 Chronochrome 9.3.2 Z-Score Analysis 9.3.3 Otsu Algorithm 9.3.4 Endmember Extraction 9.3.5 Pearson Correlation Coefficient 9.3.6 Support Vector Machine 9.4 Experiments 9.4.1 Study Area 9.4.1.1 Poyang Lake (Dataset #1) 9.4.1.2 Umatilla River (Dataset #2) 9.4.1.3 Shadegan Wetlands (Dataset #3) 9.4.2 Implementation 9.5 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Usage of Satellite Technology in Monitoring the Wetlands of Turkey, Tigris, and Euphrates Watershed 10.1 Background 10.2 Usage of Satellite Technology in Monitoring the Wetlands of Turkey 10.3 Study Area 10.4 Conclusion References Section III: Geology Chapter 11: Sedimentology and Mineralogy of Quaternary Sediments of Marshes, South of Iraq 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Geological Settings 11.3 Tectonic Settings 11.4 Geomorphologic Settings 11.5 Sedimentological and Mineralogical Characters of the Marsh Sediments 11.5.1 Sedimentology 11.5.2 Mineralogy 11.5.2.1 Minerals of Sand Size 11.5.2.2 Clay Minerals 11.6 Fauna Assemblage References Section IV: Major Biotope Chapter 12: Phytoplankton and Primary Production in Iraqi Marshes 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Algal Flora of the Marsh Area 12.3 Trophic Levels, Chlorophyll a and Primary Production 12.4 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Distribution Patterns, Diversity Centers, and Priorities for Conservation of Aquatic Plants in Iran 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Study Area 13.2.1 Geography 13.2.2 Hydrology 13.2.3 Geomorphology and Geology 13.2.4 Climatology 13.3 Data Analysis 13.4 Results and Discussion 13.4.1 Aquatic Plants of Iran 13.4.2 Distribution Patterns and Species Richness 13.4.3 Rare Taxa and Conservation Status (IUCN Red List Category) References Chapter 14: Compiled Checklist of Aquatic Invertebrates of the Southern Marshes of Iraq 14.1 Introduction 14.2 The Checklist 14.3 Remarks References Chapter 15: The Indian Shad Tenualosa ilisha (Hamilton 1822) in the Southern Marshes of Iraq: A Revision and Evaluation of a C... 15.1 Introduction 15.2 The Identity of the Indian Shad T. ilisha 15.3 Revision of Some Aspects of the Indian Shad Studied from the Southern Marshes of Iraq 15.3.1 Morphology 15.3.2 Occurrence 15.3.3 Fisheries and Stock Assessment 15.3.4 Food of T. ilisha 15.3.5 Reproduction 15.3.6 Other Biological Aspects of Tenualosa ilisha in the Southern Marshes of Iraq 15.3.7 Ecological Studies Related to the Indian Shad T. ilisha Inhabiting the Southern Marshes of Iraq 15.3.8 Parasites and Diseases of Indian Shad in the Southern Marshes of Iraq 15.4 Remarks and Recommendations References Chapter 16: The Presence of Gambusia Fish in the Southern Marshes of Iraq: Bad or Good 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 Mosquitofish in Iraq 16.2 The Identity of Gambusia Fish 16.3 The Impact of Gambusia Fish on the Environment 16.3.1 Effects of Gambusia Fish on Invertebrates 16.3.2 Gambusia Effects on Fish 16.3.3 Gambusia Influence on Amphibians 16.4 Some Remarks on the Control of Mosquitofish References Chapter 17: Checklist of Freshwater Fishes of Southwestern Wetlands of Iran 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Material and Methods 17.2.1 Study Area 17.2.2 The Shadegan Wetland 17.2.3 The Haur Al-Azim Wetland (Hawizeh Marsh) 17.2.4 Preparation of the Checklist 17.3 Results 17.4 Discussion 17.4.1 Clupeidae 17.4.2 Cyprinidae 17.4.3 Leuciscidae 17.4.4 Xenocyprididae 17.4.5 Siluriformes 17.4.6 Cichlidae 17.4.7 Aphaniidae 17.4.8 Poeciliidae 17.4.9 Mugilidae 17.4.10 Sparidae 17.5 Conclusion References Chapter 18: Checklist of Fishes of the Caspian Sea Basin: Land of Wetlands 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Material and Methods 18.2.1 Study Area 18.2.2 Preparation of the Checklist 18.3 Results 18.4 Discussion 18.5 Conclusion Appendices Appendix 1: Representative Habitats of the Southern Caspian Sea Basin Appendix 2: Representative Fish Species in the Southern Caspian Sea Basin. The Order of Appearance of Species Is in Accordance... References Chapter 19: The Ornithological Importance of the Southern Marshes of Iraq 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Important Breeding Birds 19.3 Endemic Species and Subspecies 19.4 Winter Visitors and Passage Migrants 19.5 Conservation Priority Species 19.6 The Economic Value of Birds in the Marshes 19.7 Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas in the Southern Marshes 19.8 The Southern Marshes of Iraq 19.8.1 Central Marshes 19.8.2 East Hammar 19.8.3 West Hammar 19.8.4 Hawizeh 19.9 Threats, Conservation and Opportunities 19.10 Recommendations References Section V: Biodiversity Aspects Chapter 20: Northern Gulf Marine Biodiversity in Relevance to the River Discharge 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Biodiversity of the Northern Gulf 20.3 Overall Biodiversity Pattern Across the Northern Gulf: Habitats 20.3.1 Shatt Al-Arab Delta 20.3.2 Bubiyan Island 20.3.3 Failaka Island 20.3.4 Kuwait Bay 20.3.5 Kuwait ́s Southern Marine Waters 20.4 Overall Biodiversity Pattern: North to South Gradient 20.4.1 Bacterioplankton 20.4.2 Phytoplankton 20.4.3 Microzooplankton 20.4.4 Mesozooplankton 20.4.5 Microphytobenthos 20.4.6 Macrophytobenthos 20.4.7 Microzoobenthos 20.4.8 Macrozoobenthos 20.5 Shatt Al-Arab River System 20.6 Long-Term River-Related Salinity Changes in the Northern Gulf 20.7 River Discharge Impact on Marine Biota in the Northern Gulf 20.7.1 Lower Reach of the Shatt Al-Arab 20.7.2 Shatt Al-Arab Delta 20.7.3 Kuwait ́s Northern Waters 20.7.4 Bubiyan Island 20.7.5 Off Bubiyan and Southwards 20.8 Kuwait ́s Fishery 20.9 Conclusion References Chapter 21: A Possible Threat to the Fish Biodiversity in the Southern Marshes of Iraq: A Mini-Review 21.1 Introduction 21.2 The Possible Threats to the Freshwater Fish Fauna of the Southern Marshes of Iraq 21.2.1 Local Threats 21.2.1.1 Over-Misuse and Niche Deprivation 21.2.1.2 Flow Changes and Water Pollution 21.2.1.3 Susceptibility of Freshwater Biodiversity 21.2.2 Global Threats to Freshwater Biodiversity 21.2.2.1 Invasions and Land-Use Change 21.2.2.2 Eutrophication and Acidification 21.2.2.3 Climate Change 21.3 Conclusions References Chapter 22: Biotic Homogenization: A Process That Is Happening in the Southern Marshes of Iraq 22.1 Introduction 22.2 The Measurement of Biotic Homogenization 22.3 What Causes Biotic Homogenization 22.4 Types of Biotic Homogenization 22.5 The Ecological Mechanisms of Biotic Homogenization 22.6 Biotic Homogenization in the Southern Marshes of Iraq References Section VI: Natural Resources Chapter 23: Fish, Fishing Methods and Fisheries of the Southern Marshes of Iraq 23.1 Introduction 23.2 The Geological History of the Southern Marshes of Iraq 23.3 The Dilemma of the Marshes: The Drainage 23.4 Ichthyofauna of the Marshes 23.5 Fishing Gears and Methods of the Southern Marshes of Iraq 23.6 Aspects of the Fisheries in the Southern Marshes of Iraq 23.7 Fisheries Communities ́ Conflicts and Solutions 23.8 Fish Wars 23.9 Traditional Management Systems References Chapter 24: The Artisanal Fishers in the Southern Marshes of Iraq and the Traditional Ecological Knowledge 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Methodology and Attaining Data 24.3 Results Attained 24.4 Remarks References Section VII: The Marshes and Human Health Chapter 25: Fish Consumption of Mothers and Their Children in Fishermen Society in the Marsh Areas 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Methodology 25.3 Results Attained 25.4 Discussion References Chapter 26: Ingestion of Fish Bones: Clinical Cases from the Marsh Areas of Iraq 26.1 Introduction 26.2 The Incidences 26.2.1 Case of Child Swallowed Fish Bone 26.2.2 Case of Migration of an Ingested Fish Bone to the Submandibular Gland 26.2.3 Case of Small-Bowel Perforation Caused by Fish Bone 26.3 Remarks References Section VIII: Environmental Challenges Chapter 27: The Status of Pollution in the Southern Marshes of Iraq: A Short Review 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Water Quality 27.2.1 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 27.2.2 Salinity 27.2.3 Total Hardness (TH) 27.2.4 Total Alkalinity 27.2.5 Nutrients 27.2.6 Phosphate 27.2.7 Nitrite and Nitrate 27.2.8 Total Nitrogen/Total Phosphorus (TN:TP) Ratio 27.2.9 The Heavy Elements 27.2.10 The Heavy Elements Pollution Index (HPI) 27.2.11 Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPHs) 27.2.12 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 27.3 Pollution and Toxicity 27.4 Impact of Water Quality on Fisheries and Aquaculture Activities in the Marshes References Chapter 28: The Effects of Man-Made Noise on the Fishes in the Marshes of Iraq 28.1 Introduction 28.2 The Effects of Sound Pollution on Fish 28.2.1 Physiological Changes 28.2.2 Behavioural Changes 28.3 The Anthropogenic Sound Sources in the Southern Marshes of Iraq 28.3.1 Sound Generated by Motors of Boats 28.3.2 Sound of Bombs Used in Illegal Fishing 28.3.3 Sound Generated from Gun Used to Hunt Birds 28.3.4 Sound Generated from Arm Shooting by Locals During Celebration Events 28.3.5 Sound Generated by Machines Operating in the Marshes References Chapter 29: Heavy Metals in Wetlands in Turkey 29.1 Introduction 29.1.1 Wetlands in Turkey 29.2 Current Status and Distribution of Ramsar Sites in Turkey 29.2.1 Heavy Metal Pollution in Selected Ramsar Sites of Turkey 29.2.1.1 Lake Manyas (Kus) 29.2.1.2 Lake Uluabat 29.2.1.3 Gediz Delta 29.2.1.4 Lake Burdur 29.2.1.5 Kzlrmak Delta 29.2.1.6 Sultan Marshes 29.2.1.7 Seyfe Lake 29.2.1.8 Summary on Heavy Metals in Ramsar Sites in Turkey 29.2.2 Heavy Metal Pollution in Selected Wetland Area of Turkey References Chapter 30: Locals ́ Awareness of Ecotourism in the Southern Marshes of Iraq 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Methodology and Data Collection 30.3 Results Attained 30.4 Remarks References Chapter 31: The Effects of Thermal Pollution on the Aquatic Life in the Southern Marshes of Iraq 31.1 Introduction 31.2 The Background of the Electrical Power in Iraq 31.3 Impacts of Thermal Power Plants on the Freshwater Habitats 31.3.1 Impacts on Water Quantity 31.3.1.1 Temperature 31.3.1.2 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 31.3.1.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Electrical Conductivity (EC) 31.3.2 Impact on Fishes 31.3.3 Impact on Plankton 31.3.3.1 Phytoplankton 31.3.3.2 Zooplankton 31.3.4 Impact on Invertebrates 31.4 Effects of Heated Freshwater Owing to the Thermal Power Plants: The Iraqi Case 31.5 The Future of the Effects of Thermal Power Plants in Iraq References Section IX: Conservation Chapter 32: What Ecological Principles Required for a Proposed Establishment and Management of National Parks in the Southern ... 32.1 Introduction 32.2 Ecological Codes Relating to Selection of Protected Area and Preliminary Founding References Chapter 33: The Possible Difficulties and Outcomes of the Biodiversity Conservation of the Southern Marshes of Iraq 33.1 Introduction 33.2 The Biodiversity of the Southern Marshes of Iraq 33.3 Biodiversity Hotspots 33.4 Biodiversity Conservation Problems 33.5 Conservation of the Freshwater Biodiversity and Its Implementation in Iraq 33.5.1 Environmental DNA 33.5.1.1 A Possible Implementation in Iraq 33.5.2 Environmental Flows 33.5.2.1 A Possible Implementation in Iraq 33.5.3 Aliens and Aquaculture 33.5.3.1 A Possible Implementation in Iraq 33.5.4 Fish Abstractions and Dam Elimination 33.5.4.1 A Possible Implementation in Iraq 33.5.5 Climate Modification and Accomplished Moving of Species 33.5.5.1 A Possible Implementation in Iraq References Chapter 34: Co-management Scheme to Protect the Southern Marshes of Iraq: A Proposal 34.1 Introduction 34.2 Short History of Co-management Practised in South Asian Countries 34.3 Protected Areas in Iraq 34.4 The Experience of Co-managing of Protected Areas of Some Countries and Applicability to the Case of the Southern Marshes ... References Chapter 35: Eradication as a Method to Manage the Non-native Fish in the Marsh Environment: A Proposal 35.1 Introduction 35.2 Eradication Approaches 35.2.1 Chemical Methods 35.2.2 Physical Methods 35.2.3 Biological Methods 35.3 Remarks References Chapter 36: Freshwater Commercial Bycatch in the Southern Marshes of Iraq: The Unexploited Aquatic Wealth and Understated Cons... 36.1 Introduction 36.2 Significant Contribution of the Bycatch in the Freshwater Fisheries 36.3 Research Chances for Freshwater Commercial Bycatch 36.4 What Aquatic Animals Fall in the Category of Bycatch and Usually Caught in the Southern Marshes of Iraq References Section X: Socio-economic Aspects Chapter 37: Ornamental Fish Farming: A Proposal for a Successful Small-Scale Aqua Business Project in the Southern Marshes of ... 37.1 Introduction 37.2 The Ornamental Fish 37.3 Diversified Ornamental Fish Group 37.3.1 Catfish Group 37.3.2 The Barbs 37.3.3 Danionin 37.3.4 Loach 37.3.5 Cichlid 37.3.6 Eels 37.3.7 Snakehead 37.4 The Ornamental Fish Species of the Southern Marshes of Iraq 37.5 Livelihood Opportunities Through Ornamental Fisheries 37.6 Main Daily Jobs That the Ornamental Fish Industry Requires in Case of the Establishment in the Southern Marshes of Iraq 37.7 Aspects of Maintainability and Living Security References Chapter 38: Migration of Youth to the Big Cities from the Southern Marshes of Iraq: Solutions to Keep Locals with an Upgrading... 38.1 Introduction 38.2 Effects of Migration and Their Incentives 38.3 Preparatory Measures Before Setting the Solutions for the Problem of the Migration of the Young People out of the Marsh A... 38.4 Solution Measures to Stop Young People from Leaving the Marsh Areas in Iraq References Chapter 39: The Daily Life of the Marsh Arab of the Southern Marshes of Iraq Through a Camera Lens 39.1 Introduction 39.1.1 Who Are the Marsh Arabs? 39.1.2 The Landscape of the Marsh Arabs 39.1.3 The Dwellings of the Marsh Arabs 39.1.4 Socioeconomic Life of the Marsh Arabs 39.1.5 Scope of the Chapter 39.2 The Housing at the Marshes 39.2.1 Constructing the Mudhif 39.2.2 Rituals of the Mudhif 39.2.3 Steps of Building al-mudhif as Shown in Photos 39.2.4 Hut Building 39.3 The Daily Works 39.3.1 Food Making 39.3.1.1 Bread Making 39.3.1.2 Tanoor Building Ancient Mud ``Tanoor ́ ́ Metal ``Tanoor ́ ́ 39.3.1.3 Making Iraqi Bread 39.3.1.4 Making ``Tabak and Siah ́ ́ Bread 39.3.1.5 Making Kharait . Process of Making Kharait . 39.3.1.6 Making Kaimer . 39.3.1.7 CheeseMaking . 39.3.1.8 Butter Making . 39.3.1.9 Making Flour . 39.3.1.10 Food-Related Activities Habit of Drinking Tea Providing Drinking Water 39.3.2 Jobs Related with Reeds 39.3.3 Dung Patty Making 39.3.4 Milking Animals 39.3.5 Feeding the Animals 39.3.6 Dishwashing 39.3.7 Taking Care of the Kids 39.3.8 Fishing 39.3.9 Fowl Hunting 39.3.10 Boat Building and Repair 39.4 Creative and Artistic Works 39.4.1 Date Palm Leaves as Artistic Products 39.4.1.1 Making Baskets , Tabak 39.4.2 Reed Plant ́s Artistic Products 39.4.3 Weaving and Making Rugs 39.5 Other Skills 39.6 Buffalo 39.6.1 Varieties of Buffaloes 39.6.2 The Horns of the Buffaloes 39.6.3 Herding the Buffaloes 39.7 Teaching in the Marsh Area 39.8 Myths and Legends of the Marsh Arabs 39.8.1 The Legend of Ihfaid 39.8.2 Um Al-Hanna 39.8.3 Al-Tantal 39.8.4 Yashen Abu Al-Thahab 39.9 Social Life of the Marsh Arabs 39.9.1 Carrying String Beads ``Subhah ́ ́ by Men 39.9.2 Wearing Rings 39.9.3 Carrying Arms 39.9.4 Sleeping 39.9.5 The Daily Formal Meal 39.9.6 Social Night 39.9.7 Celebrating Eid 39.9.8 Generosity 39.10 Childhood in the Marshes 39.11 Women ́s Beauty in the Marsh Areas 39.12 Boy or Girl, a Crucial Matter in the Marsh Society 39.13 Death and Burial Ceremony 39.14 Day of Ashura 39.15 Tattoo in the Marsh Area 39.16 Tourism in the Marsh Area 39.17 The Museum of the Marshes References Chapter 40: Socio-economic Status Comparison of Fishermen Community in Two Marsh Areas in Southern Iraq 40.1 Introduction 40.2 Data Attainment and Processing 40.3 Results and Remarks References