برخی افکار دربارهٔ تکامل رفتار انسانی: یک مرور ادبیات

On his death, Arthur Boucot (1924–2017) left an unfinished manuscript in which he surveyed the skeletal, behavioural, and cultural changes that have characterized Homo from its first recognition in the Late Pliocene to the present. The subjects he treated were as varied as the preparation of food for infants, the length of intestines, hafting, plastering, use of flint and metals, the domestication of grains and animals, and the prevalence of parasitic diseases. His text repeatedly notes the difficulties imposed by the enormous gaps in both fossil and archaeological records. Boucot deduced a continuity in basic human behaviours from the Oldowan and Acheulian into modern forms, and made a point of including Neandertals and Denisovans. But he also pointed out that morphological changes in successive species of Homo do not coincide in time with major changes in lithic technologies. Boucot concluded that a quantum evolutionary gap separates hominins from the great apes: that members of our line were sapient and had been using language long before they became sapiens. In his text he also indicates his concern for changes to the environment wrought by human activities. The results of this late-life effort, edited after his death, provide a heavily referenced sourcebook for future workers in diverse fields. Cover Title Page Copyright Page Contents Page Preface Acknowledgements Introduction Thesis First Appearance of ‘New’ Behaviors or New Technologies? Taxonomy Quantum Evolution Hominin Evolution Data Summary Skeletal Features Hand Handedness Shoulder Brain Size and Morphology Infant Nutrition Legs and Bipedal Walking Feet (Prehensile Toes) Rib Cage Legs and Arms Pelvis and Spine Neck and Position of the Foramen Magnum Tooth Morphology Prognathism Sexual Dimorphism Size and Robusticity Baculum Hearing Mortality Soft-Tissue Evidence with Some Skeletal Basis Summary Digestive-Tract Morphology and Physiology Soft-Tissue Evidence Supported by Molecular Information Penile spines Smell Sexual Receptivity Soft Tissue Variables with No Skeletal Evidence Summary Vision ‘Hairlessness’ and Skin Sweat Glands Estrus Obstetric Implications (see also Pelvis and Spine, above) Life Span Menopause Behavioral Features Birth Interval Pair Bonding Division of Labor Other Behavioral Features Physiological Features Diet Summary Australopithecines and Prehominins Oldowan Acheulian Middle Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic Natufian Mesolithic Neolithic Food Processing Querns, Grinders, and Grindstones Cut Marks Made by Humans on Bone Sources of Food Evidence for Cultivation Grain and Legumes Bread and Noodles Cooking Gathering and Processing Fruits, Seeds, and other Edible Plant Parts Acheulian Middle Pleistocene Late Paleolithic Mesolithic Natufian Neolithic and Bronze Age Hunting and Fishing Animal Mammal Oldowan Acheulian Middle Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic Natufian Neolithic and Late Paleolithic Invertebrates, Chiefly Shellfish Middle Stone Age Upper Paleolithic Neolithic Fish Lower Paleolithic Middle Stone Age Late Stone Age Natufian Neolithic Bronze Age Birds Honey and Beeswax Alcoholic Beverages, Including Wine and Beer Plus Various Additives Summary Wine Mead Beer, Ale, and Allied Beverages Distilled Beverages Farming Summary Domestic Animals and ‘Pets’ Horses, Donkeys, Asses Camels Goats, Sheep Dogs and Cats Pigs Cattle Milk and Dairy Products Cheese Storage Facilities Plow Water Resources Summary Wells Siphons Cisterns Springs Pipes Water Wheels Aqueducts Dams Irrigation Systems Egyptian Near Eastern Chinese Southeast Asian Human-Waste Disposal, Rubbish Disposal, Baths, and Drainage Mohenjo-Daro Minoan Greek and Roman Greek Roman Behavioral–Technological Innovations Tools and Materials Summary Stone and Bone Tools Generalities Oldowan Acheulian Middle Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic Natufian Neolithic Chalcolithic Bronze Age Iron Age Tool Use Stone (see also Mining and Quarrying, below) Mining and Quarrying Acheulian Mesolithic and Late Paleolithic Bronze Age Variscite and Cinnabar Mines Amazonite, Amethyst, and Emerald Quarries and Turquoise Mines in Egypt Mining of Flint and Obsidian Neolithic and Middle Paleolithic Flint and Other Tool-Materials Bronze Age Obsidian Quarry Metal, and Metal Mining and Smelting Firesetting Mining and Quarrying Tools Neolithic and Younger Mines Ancient Copper Mines Europe Southeast Europe Serbia Bulgaria Eastern and Central Mediterranean Greece and the Aegean Islands Cyprus Sardinia and Corsica Italy Iberia and the Western Mediterranean Southwest Spain Portugal Southeast and Central-East Spain Northern Spain France and the Western Alps Other Mines in Southern France The French Alps Northern Europe Ireland Britain Central and Eastern Europe The Austrian Mines Slovakia Southern Urals Near East Asia Ancient Tin Deposits Old World South America Ancient Lead, Silver, Gold, and Zinc Deposits Gold Mining Salt Mining and Production Ocher; Hematite Mining Brick Wood and Reed (see also Hafting, Below) Lacquerware Bone Ivory Antler Leather and Rawhide Pottery and Ceramics (See Also Kilns, Pottery Wheels, Below) Ceramics Pottery Kilns Pottery Wheels Plaster and Bitumen Metal Gold Copper and Bronze Iron Glass Abrasives Containers Utensils Rope, String, Cords Hafting Middle Stone Age Late Stone Age Neolithic Post-Neolithic Warfare and Interpersonal Violence (See Also Hafting, Above) Summary Intraspecific Violence Evidence of Warfare Neolithic and Younger Fortification Projectiles Armor, Including Shields and Weapons Hafting (see above) Textiles, Clothing, Basketry, Matting, Wooden Containers Neolithic Copper Age Bronze Age Iron Age Dyeing Materials Bedding Stone Age Upper Paleolithic Neolithic Property (see also Trading and Transport of Materials) Trading and Transport of Materials Oldowan Early Stone Age Middle Stone Age/Middle Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic Natufian Neolithic Bronze Age Iron Age and Younger Transportation Summary Movement by Water and ‘Boats’ Inferential Data Indonesia and Nearby Islands Australia and New Guinea (Sahul) Islands East and North of Australia–New Guinea Bay of Bengal Mediterranean Region Actual Data Movement on Land Horse Carts, Wagons, Wheels, Axles Roads Heavy Transport Fire (refer to Diet also, above) Summary Evidence Lower Paleolithic Acheulian Middle Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic Neolithic and Later Architecture Shelter and Buildings Acheulian Earlier Paleolithic Middle Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic Natufian and Neolithic Door Locks Measurements and Numbers Scales, Balances, Weights Religion Shrines Divinities Burials, Afterlife, Memorials, and Monuments Summary Lower Paleolithic Middle Stone Age Late Paleolithic Natufian and Neolithic Neolithic Iron Age Egyptian Ur Bronze Age, Minoan, Greek, and Roman Cemeteries Cremations Gregariousness Slavery and Prostitution Mass Deportations Human Disease The Record Sources of Evidence Other Than Skeletal Mummies Feces Cancer Rheumatic and Arthritic Diseases, Joint Diseases Infectious Diseases Chagas Disease Smallpox Tuberculosis Peptic Ulcers and Helicobacter pylori Typhoid Fever Typhus Malaria Toxoplasmosis Leprosy Leishmaniasis Syphilis Lyme Disease Plague and Trench Fever Rabies Sinusitis Gout Sleeping Sickness Ergotism Rates of Evolution Diarrhea Amoebic Dysentery and Amoebic Liver Abscess Protozoans Lice and Fleas Lice Fleas Bedbugs Parasitic Diseases Helminths Giant Kidney Worm Schistosomiasis Roundworms Taenia Tapeworms Fish Tapeworm Whipworms Hookworms Lancet Fluke and Sheep Liver Fluke Guinea Worm Pinworm Echinostomiasis Anthracosis Lead Poisoning Osteomyelitis Rickets and Scurvy Caries in Humans Fractures Joint Disease Developmental Disorders Infanticide and Uxoricide Trepanation and Skull Deformation Cannabis and Opium Medicine and Medicinal Plants Care of the Handicapped Summary Early Paleolithic Middle Paleolithic Late Paleolithic Neolithic to Present Communication Language Writing Paper Art Summary Graphic Arts Lower Paleolithic Middle Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic Natufian Neolithic Plastic Arts Acheulian Middle Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic Natufian Neolithic Bronze Age Ornaments Summary Tattoos Decorative arts Jewelry Beads Acheulian Middle Stone Age Paleolithic Natufian Neolithic Bronze Age Iron Age Pendants Middle Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic Neolithic Bronze Age Bracelets and Headdresses Earrings Pearls and Mother of Pearl Quartz Crystals Various Minerals Amber and Lignite plus Jet Mirrors Feathers Fossils Ocher and Malachite (see also Beads, Pendants, Ocher Mining, and Burials) Abbevillian/Acheulian Middle Stone Age Upper Paleolithic Natufian Neolithic Music Cannibalism Executions, Human Sacrifice, Banishment, Crime, Suicide Clothing (see also above: Textiles, Clothing, and Basketry; Beads and Pendants) Needles Lighting Calendar Games Migrations Miscellaneous Conclusions Bibliography Back cover