Solid-State Sensors

Solid-State Sensors A thorough and up-to-date introduction to solid-state sensors, materials, fabrication processes, and applications Solid-State Sensors provides a comprehensive introduction to the field, covering fundamental principles, underlying theories, sensor materials, fabrication technologies, current and possible future applications, and more. Presented in a clear and accessible format, this reader-friendly textbook describes the fundamentals and classification of all major types of solid-state sensors, including piezoresistive, capacitive, thermometric, optical bio-chemical, magnetic, and acoustic-based sensors. Throughout the text, the authors offer insight into how different solid-state methods complement each other as well as their respective advantages and disadvantages in relation to specific devices and a variety of state-of-the-art applications. Detailed yet concise chapters include numerous visual illustrations and comparative tables of different subtypes of sensors for a given application. With in-depth discussion of recent developments, current research, and key challenges in the field of solid-state sensors, this volume: Describes solid-state sensing parameters and their importance in sensor characterization Explores possible future applications and breakthroughs in associated fields of research Covers the fundamental principles and relevant equations of sensing phenomena Discusses promising smart materials that have the potential for sensing applications Includes an overview of the history, classification, and terminology of sensors With well-balanced coverage of the fundamentals of sensor design, current and emerging applications, and the most recent research developments in the field, Solid-State Sensors is an excellent textbook for advanced students and professionals in disciplines such as Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Physics, Chemistry, and Biomedical Engineering. Cover Title Page Copyright Page Contents About the Authors Preface Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Overview 1.1.1 Growth in Solid-State Sensor Market 1.1.2 Solid-State Sensors: A Recipe for Smart Sensing Systems 1.2 Evolution of Solid-State Sensors 1.2.1 Origin and Early Developments in Detection Devices 1.2.2 Solid-State Electronics: Post Transistor Era 1.2.3 Emergence of New Technologies 1.2.3.1 Thin-Film Technology 1.2.3.2 Advancements in Micro- and Nanofabrication 1.2.3.3 Emergence of Nanotechnology 1.2.3.4 Printed Electronics on Flexible Substrates 1.2.3.5 Smart Devices with Artificial Intelligence 1.2.3.6 IoT-Enabled Sensors 1.2.4 Paradigm Shift in Solid-State Sensor Research 1.2.4.1 Organic Devices 1.2.4.2 Wearable Devices 1.2.4.3 Implantable Sensors 1.3 Outline References Chapter 2 Classification and Terminology 2.1 Sensor Components 2.2 Classification of Solid-State Sensors 2.3 Sensor Terminology 2.3.1 Accuracy 2.3.2 Precision 2.3.3 Calibration Curve 2.3.4 Sensitivity 2.3.5 Threshold/Minimum Detectable Limit 2.3.6 Null Offset 2.3.7 Dynamic Range 2.3.8 Nonlinearity 2.3.9 Hysteresis 2.3.10 Selectivity 2.3.11 Repeatability 2.3.12 Reproducibility 2.3.13 Resolution 2.3.14 Stability 2.3.15 Noise 2.3.16 Response and Recovery Time 2.3.17 Drift 2.4 Conclusion References Chapter 3 Fabrication Technologies 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Deposition 3.2.1 Physical Vapor Deposition 3.2.1.1 Thermal Evaporation 3.2.1.2 Sputter Deposition 3.2.1.3 Electron-Beam PVD 3.2.1.4 Laser Ablation 3.2.2 Electroplating 3.2.3 Thermal Oxidation 3.2.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition 3.2.4.1 Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition 3.2.4.2 Low-Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition 3.2.4.3 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition 3.3 Exposure-Based Lithography Techniques 3.3.1 UV Lithography 3.3.1.1 Exposure Tool 3.3.1.2 Mask 3.3.1.3 Photoresist 3.3.2 Electron-Beam Lithography 3.3.3 X-Ray Lithography 3.3.4 Ion-Beam Lithography 3.4 Soft Lithography Techniques 3.4.1 Particle Replication in Nonwetting Templates 3.4.2 Microcontact Printing 3.4.3 Microfluidic Patterning 3.4.4 Laminar Flow Patterning 3.4.5 Step and Flash Imprint Lithography 3.4.6 Hydrogel Template 3.5 Etching 3.5.1 Wet Etching 3.5.2 Dry Etching 3.6 Doping 3.6.1 Diffusion 3.6.2 Ion Implantation 3.7 Solution Processed Methods 3.7.1 Inkjet Printing 3.7.2 Drop Dispensing 3.7.3 Spray Deposition 3.7.4 Screen Printing 3.7.5 Tape Casting 3.8 Conclusions References Chapter 4 Piezoelectric Sensors 4.1 Overview 4.2 Theory of Piezoelectricity 4.2.1 Direct Piezoelectric Effect 4.2.2 Poling 4.2.3 Static Piezoelectricity 4.2.4 Anisotropic Crystals 4.3 Basic Mathematical Formulation 4.3.1 Contribution of Piezoelectric Effect to Elastic Constant C 4.3.2 Contribution of Piezoelectric Effect to Dielectric Constant ε 4.4 Constitutive Equations 4.4.1 Piezoelectric 4.4.2 Sensor .Equations for Electrical Circuits 4.4.3 Piezoelectric Constants for a Material 4.4.3.1 Piezoelectric Strain Constant d 4.4.3.2 Piezoelectric Voltage Coefficient g 4.4.3.3 Piezoelectric Coupling Coefficients k 4.4.3.4 Mechanical Quality Factor QM 4.4.3.5 Acoustic Impedance 4.4.3.6 Aging Rate 4.4.3.7 Dielectric Constants KijT 4.5 Piezoelectric Materials 4.5.1 Natural Piezoelectric Materials 4.5.1.1 Piezoelectric Single Crystals 4.5.1.2 Organic Materials 4.5.1.3 Biopiezoelectric Materials 4.5.2 Man-made/Synthetic Piezoelectric Material 4.5.2.1 Polymers 4.5.2.2 Ceramics 4.5.2.3 Piezoelectric Composites 4.5.2.4 Thin Film 4.5.2.5 Choice of Piezoelectric Material for Desired Applications 4.6 Uses of Piezoelectric Materials 4.6.1 Piezoelectric Transducer 4.6.2 Piezoelectric Actuator 4.6.3 Piezoelectric Generator 4.7 Piezoelectric Transducers as Sensors 4.7.1 Pressure Sensor 4.7.2 Accelerometer 4.7.3 Acoustic Sensor 4.8 Design of Piezoelectric Devices 4.8.1 Orientation of Piezo Crystals 4.8.2 Piezo Stacks 4.8.3 Bimorph Architecture 4.9 Application of Piezoelectric Sensors 4.9.1 Industrial Applications 4.9.1.1 Engine Knock Sensors 4.9.1.2 Tactile Sensors 4.9.1.3 Piezoelectric Motors 4.9.1.4 SONAR 4.9.2 Consumer Electronics 4.9.2.1 Piezoelectric Igniters 4.9.2.2 Drop on Demand Piezoelectric Printers 4.9.2.3 Speakers 4.9.2.4 Other Daily Use Products 4.9.3 Medical Applications 4.9.3.1 Ultrasound Imaging 4.9.3.2 Surgery and Ultrasound Procedures 4.9.3.3 Wound and Bone Fracture Healing 4.9.4 Defense Applications 4.9.4.1 Micro Robotics 4.9.4.2 Laser-Guided Bullets and Missiles 4.9.5 Musical Applications 4.9.5.1 Piezoelectric Pickups for Instruments 4.9.5.2 Microphones and Ear Pieces 4.9.6 Other Applications 4.9.6.1 Energy Harvesters 4.9.6.2 Sports-Tennis Racquets 4.10 Conclusions References Chapter 5 Capacitive Sensors 5.1 Overview 5.1.1 A Capacitor 5.1.2 Capacitance of a Capacitor 5.2 Sensor Construction 5.2.1 Overlapping Electrode Area A 5.2.2 Dielectric Thickness d 5.2.3 Dielectric Material 5.2.4 Parallel Fingers and Fringing Fields 5.3 Sensor Architecture 5.3.1 Mixed Dielectrics 5.3.2 Multielectrode Capacitor 5.3.3 Geometry 5.4 Classifications of Capacitive Sensors 5.4.1 Displacement Capacitive Sensor 5.4.2 Overlapping Area Variation Based Capacitive Sensor 5.4.3 Effective Dielectric Permittivity Variation Based Capacitive Sensor 5.4.4 Fringing Field Capacitive Sensor 5.5 Flexible Capacitive Sensors 5.6 Applications 5.6.1 Motion Detection 5.6.1.1 Displacement Motion (z-Direction) 5.6.1.2 Shear Motion (x Direction) 5.6.1.3 Tilt Sensor 5.6.1.4 Rotary Motion Sensor 5.6.1.5 Finger Position (2D, x–y Direction) 5.6.2 Pressure 5.6.3 Liquid Level 5.6.4 Spacing 5.6.5 Scanned Multiplate Sensor 5.6.6 Thickness Measurement 5.6.7 Ice Detector 5.6.8 Shaft Angle or Linear Position 5.6.9 Lamp Dimmer Switch 5.6.10 Key Switch 5.6.11 Limit Switch 5.6.12 Accelerometers 5.6.13 Soil Moisture Measurement 5.7 Prospects and Limitations 5.7.1 Prospects 5.7.2 Limitations References Chapter 6 Chemical Sensors 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Overview 6.1.2 Global Limelight 6.1.3 Evolution of Chemical Sensors 6.1.4 Requirements for Chemical Sensors 6.1.4.1 Selectivity 6.1.4.2 Stability 6.1.4.3 Sensitivity 6.1.4.4 Response Time 6.1.4.5 Limit of Detection 6.2 Materials for Chemical Sensing 6.2.1 Metal Oxides 6.2.1.1 Types of Metal Oxides 6.2.1.2 Chemical Sensing Mechanism 6.2.1.3 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles and Films as Sensor Materials 6.2.2 Honeycomb Structured Materials 6.2.2.1 Graphene 6.2.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes 6.2.2.3 Other 2D Materials 6.2.3 Biopolymers 6.2.3.1 On the Basis of Type 6.2.3.2 On the Basis of Origin 6.2.3.3 On the Basis of Monomeric Units 6.2.4 Functionalization 6.2.4.1 Covalent Functionalization 6.2.4.2 Noncovalent Functionalization 6.2.5 Biocomposites 6.3 Architectures in Chemical Sensors 6.3.1 Chemiresistors 6.3.2 ChemFET 6.4 Applications 6.4.1 Gas Sensors 6.4.2 Environmental Sensors 6.4.2.1 Pollutants/Aerosols Sensors 6.4.2.2 Water Quality Monitoring Sensors 6.4.2.3 Humidity Detectors 6.4.2.4 UV Radiation Exposure Monitoring 6.4.3 Biomolecule Sensors 6.4.4 Food Quality Monitoring 6.4.4.1 Relative Humidity Monitoring 6.4.4.2 Gas Monitoring 6.4.4.3 Temperature Monitoring 6.4.4.4 Presence of Toxic Metals 6.4.5 Water Quality Management in Public Pools 6.4.6 Health Monitoring 6.4.7 Defense and Security 6.5 Conclusions References Chapter 7 Optical Sensors 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Classifications of Optical Properties 7.2.1 Absorbance 7.2.2 Reflectance 7.2.3 Light Scattering 7.2.4 Luminescence 7.2.5 Fluorescence 7.2.6 Circular Dichroism 7.2.7 Z-Scan Technique 7.2.8 Förster Resonance Energy Transfer 7.3 Materials for Optical Sensing 7.3.1 Metal Oxide Materials 7.3.2 Polymer Materials 7.3.3 Carbon Materials 7.4 Optical Techniques for Sensing 7.4.1 SPR-Based Detection 7.4.2 Nanostructure Aggregation-Mediated Detection 7.4.3 Micro/Nanofiber-Based Detection 7.4.4 Colorimetric Sensing 7.4.5 Spectroscopy Techniques Associated with Sensing 7.4.5.1 Raman Spectroscopy 7.4.5.2 Luminescence Spectroscopy 7.4.5.3 Absorption Spectroscopy 7.5 Fabrication Technique of Optical Sensors 7.5.1 Solution Process 7.5.2 Inkjet Printing 7.5.3 Screen Printing 7.6 Applications of Optical Sensing 7.6.1 Environment Monitoring and Gas Sensing 7.6.2 Health Monitoring 7.6.3 Fingerprint Detection 7.6.4 Defense and Security 7.6.5 Motion Detection 7.6.6 Water Quality Monitoring 7.6.7 e-Waste and Detection of Toxic Materials 7.6.8 Detection of Microorganisms 7.7 Prospects and Limitations References Chapter 8 Magnetic Sensors 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Materials' Magnetic Properties 8.2.1 Diamagnetism 8.2.2 Paramagnetism 8.2.3 Ferromagnetism and Antiferromagnetism 8.3 Nanomagnetism 8.3.1 Magnetic Anisotropy 8.3.2 Interlayer Exchange Coupling 8.3.3 Exchange Bias 8.3.4 Spin-Polarized Transport 8.4 Magnetic Sensing Techniques 8.4.1 Hall Effect Sensors 8.4.2 Magnetoresistive Sensors 8.4.2.1 Ordinary Magnetoresistance 8.4.2.2 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance 8.4.2.3 Giant Magnetoresistance 8.4.2.4 Tunnel Magnetoresistance 8.4.2.5 Colossal Magnetoresistance 8.5 Fabrication and Characterization Technologies 8.5.1 Conventional Fabrication 8.5.2 Solution Process 8.5.3 Printing Technologies 8.6 Magnetic Sensor Applications 8.6.1 Biosensors 8.6.2 Magnetic Storage and Read Heads 8.6.3 Current Sensing 8.6.4 Position and Angle Sensors 8.7 Prospects and Limitations References Chapter 9 Interface Circuits 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Functions of Interface 9.1.2 Types of Sensor Interfacing Circuits 9.1.3 Battery 9.1.4 Battery Characteristics in System Analysis 9.1.5 Applications of an I/O Interface Device 9.1.6 Importance of Input Impedance 9.2 Amplifier Circuits 9.2.1 Ideal Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) 9.2.2 Inverting and Noninverting Op-amps 9.2.3 Voltage Follower 9.2.4 Instrumentation Amplifier 9.2.5 Charge Amplifiers 9.2.6 Applications of Amplifiers 9.3 Excitation Circuits 9.3.1 Current Generators 9.3.2 Voltage Reference 9.3.3 Oscillators 9.3.4 Drivers 9.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 9.4.1 Basic Concepts of ADC 9.4.2 V/F Converter 9.4.3 Dual-Slope Converter 9.4.4 Successive Approximation Converter 9.4.5 Resolution Extension 9.5 Noise in Sensors and Circuits 9.5.1 Inherent Noise 9.5.2 Electric Shielding 9.5.3 Bypass Capacitor 9.5.4 Magnetic Shielding 9.5.5 Ground Planes 9.5.6 Ground Loops and Ground Isolation 9.6 Batteries for Low-Power Sensors and Wireless Systems 9.6.1 Primary Cells 9.6.2 Secondary Cells 9.6.3 Energy Harvesting for WSN References Index IEEE Press Series on Sensors EULA