Solar Energy Engineering : Processes and Systems

Solar Energy Engineering: Processes and Systems, Third Edition, includes updated chapters and extended resources to assist in the research and teaching of solar energy engineering. Sections cover advances in solar collectors, solar water heating, solar space heating and cooling, industrial process heat, solar desalination, photovoltaic technology, solar thermal power systems, modeling of solar energy systems, and a new chapter on wind energy systems. This book provides students, teachers and professionals with the basic principles and applications of solar energy systems and processes to help them understand how to operate and design solar systems. In addition, this best-selling title includes a student and academic companion site with additional materials on chapter PowerPoints for teaching, problems with a solutions manual, and equations files to assist in problem-solving. Written by one of the world's most renowned experts in solar energy with over thirty years of experience in renewable and solar energy applications Features a new student and professor companion site with study questions and exercises, problem-solving files, formulas and teaching support materials Provides updated chapters, including new sections detailing solar collectors, uncertainties in solar collector performance testing, building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV), thermosiphonic systems performance prediction and solar updraft tower systems Includes reference tables and schematic diagrams for the most used systems Front Cover Solar Energy Engineering Solar Energy Engineering: Processes and Systems Copyright Contents Preface to the third edition 1 - Introduction 1.1 General introduction to renewable energy technologies 1.2 Energy demand and renewable energy 1.3 Energy-related environmental problems and the role of renewables 1.3.1 Acid rain 1.3.2 Ozone layer depletion 1.3.3 Global climate change 1.3.4 Nuclear energy 1.3.5 Renewable energy technologies 1.3.6 Current state of renewable energy technologies in the world 1.4 State of the climate 1.4.1 Global temperature 1.4.2 Carbon dioxide 1.4.3 Methane 1.4.4 Carbon monoxide 1.4.5 Nitrous oxide and sulfur hexafluoride 1.4.6 Halocarbons 1.4.7 Sea level 1.5 A brief history of solar energy 1.5.1 Photovoltaics 1.5.2 Solar desalination 1.5.3 Solar drying 1.5.4 Passive solar buildings 1.6 Other renewable energy systems 1.6.1 Wind energy A brief historical introduction into wind energy Wind energy systems technology 1.6.2 Biomass Sustainable biomass production for energy Biofuels 1.6.3 Geothermal energy Ground coupled heat pumps 1.6.4 Hydrogen 1.6.5 Ocean energy Wave energy Tidal energy Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) Exercise References 2 - Environmental Characteristics 2.1 Reckoning of time 2.1.1 Equation of time 2.1.2 Longitude correction 2.2 Solar angles Declination, δ Hour angle, h Solar altitude angle, α Solar azimuth angle, z Sunrise and sunset times and day length Incidence angle, θ 2.2.1 The incidence angle for moving surfaces Full tracking Tilted N–S axis with tilt adjusted daily Polar N–S axis with E–W tracking Horizontal E–W axis with N–S tracking Horizontal N–S axis with E–W tracking Comparison 2.2.2 Sun path diagrams 2.2.3 Shadow determination 2.3 Solar radiation 2.3.1 General 2.3.2 Thermal radiation 2.3.3 Transparent plates 2.3.4 Radiation exchange between surfaces 2.3.5 Extraterrestrial solar radiation 2.3.6 Atmospheric attenuation 2.3.7 Terrestrial irradiation 2.3.8 Total radiation on tilted surfaces Isotropic sky model Other radiation models Klucher model Hay–Davies model Reindl model Insolation on tilted surfaces 2.3.9 Solar radiation measuring equipment 2.4 The solar resource 2.4.1 Typical meteorological year 2.4.2 Typical meteorological year, second generation 2.4.3 Typical meteorological year, third generation Exercises References 3 - Solar Energy Collectors 3.1 Stationary collectors 3.1.1 Flat-plate collector (FPC) Glazing materials Collector absorbing plates Collector construction 3.1.2 Compound parabolic collector (CPC) 3.1.3 Evacuated tube collector (ETC) 3.1.4 Outlook of the technology 3.2 Sun-tracking concentrating collectors 3.2.1 Parabolic trough collector (PTC) Parabola construction Tracking mechanisms 3.2.2 Fresnel collectors 3.2.3 Parabolic dish reflector (PDR) 3.2.4 Heliostat field collector (HFC) 3.3 Thermal analysis of flat-plate collectors 3.3.1 Absorbed solar radiation 3.3.2 Collector energy losses 3.3.3 Temperature distribution between the tubes and collector efficiency factor 3.3.4 Heat removal factor, flow factor, and thermal efficiency 3.3.5 Serpentine collector 3.3.6 Heat losses from unglazed collectors 3.4 Thermal analysis of air collectors 3.5 Practical considerations for flat-plate collectors 3.6 Concentrating collectors 3.6.1 Optical analysis of a compound parabolic collector 3.6.2 Thermal analysis of compound parabolic collectors 3.6.3 Optical analysis of parabolic trough collectors Optical efficiency 3.6.4 Thermal analysis of parabolic trough collectors Consideration of gas in annulus space Consideration of vacuum in annulus space 3.7 Second law analysis 3.7.1 Minimum entropy generation rate 3.7.2 Optimum collector temperature 3.7.3 Non-isothermal collector Exercises Assignment: Design of a flat-plate solar collector Estimate the thermal efficiency of the collector (η%) Problem options for various students References 4 - Performance of Solar Collectors 4.1 Collector thermal efficiency 4.1.1 Effect of flow rate 4.1.2 Collectors in series 4.1.3 Standard requirements Glazed collectors Unglazed collectors Using a solar simulator 4.2 Collector incidence angle modifier 4.2.1 Flat-plate collectors 4.2.2 Concentrating collectors 4.3 Concentrating collector acceptance angle 4.4 Collector time constant 4.5 Dynamic system test method 4.6 Efficiency parameters conversion 4.7 Assessment of uncertainty in solar collector testing 4.7.1 Fitting and uncertainties in efficiency testing results 4.8 Collector test results and preliminary collector selection 4.9 Quality test methods 4.9.1 Internal pressure test 4.9.2 Rupture or collapse test 4.9.3 Exposure test 4.9.4 External thermal shock test 4.9.5 Internal thermal shock test 4.9.6 Rain penetration 4.9.7 Freeze resistance test 4.9.8 Impact resistance test 4.10 European standards 4.10.1 Solar Keymark 4.11 Data acquisition systems 4.11.1 Portable data loggers 4.11.2 IoT in data acquisition systems Exercises References 5 - Solar Water-Heating Systems 5.1 Passive systems 5.1.1 Thermosiphon systems Theoretical performance of thermosiphon solar water heaters Reverse circulation in thermosiphon systems Vertical versus horizontal tank configurations Freeze protection Tracking thermosiphons 5.1.2 Integrated collector storage systems 5.2 Active systems 5.2.1 Direct circulation systems 5.2.2 Indirect water-heating systems 5.2.3 Air water-heating systems 5.2.4 Heat pump systems 5.2.5 Pool heating systems Evaporation heat loss Radiation heat loss Convection heat loss Make-up water Solar radiation heat gain 5.3 Heat storage systems 5.3.1 Air system thermal storage 5.3.2 Liquid system thermal storage 5.3.3 Thermal analysis of storage systems Water systems Air systems 5.4 Module and array design 5.4.1 Module design 5.4.2 Array design Shading Thermal expansion Galvanic corrosion Array sizing Heat exchangers Pipe and duct losses Partially shaded collectors Over-temperature protection 5.5 Differential temperature controller 5.5.1 Placement of sensors 5.6 Hot water demand 5.7 Solar water heater performance evaluation Rating test Black box correlation procedures Testing and computer simulation 5.8 Simple system models 5.9 Practical considerations 5.9.1 Pipes, supports, and insulation 5.9.2 Pumps 5.9.3 Valves 5.9.4 Instrumentation Exercises References 6 - Solar Space Heating and Cooling 6.1 Thermal load estimation Heat gain Thermal load Heat extraction rate 6.1.1 The heat balance method 6.1.2 The transfer function method Wall and roof transfer functions Partitions, ceilings, and floors Glazing People Lighting Appliances Ventilation and infiltration air 6.1.3 Heat extraction rate and room temperature 6.1.4 Degree-day method 6.1.5 Building heat transfer 6.2 Passive space-heating design 6.2.1 Building construction: thermal mass effects Incidental thermal mass effects Intentional thermal mass effects Characteristics of a thermal storage wall Performance of thermal storage walls Use of phase change materials 6.2.2 Building shape and orientation 6.2.3 Insulation 6.2.4 Windows: sunspaces 6.2.5 Overhangs 6.2.6 Natural ventilation 6.3 Solar space heating and cooling 6.3.1 Space heating and service hot water 6.3.2 Air systems 6.3.3 Water systems 6.3.4 Location of auxiliary heater 6.3.5 Heat pump systems 6.4 Solar cooling Solar-sorption cooling Solar-mechanical systems Solar-related air conditioning 6.4.1 Adsorption units 6.4.2 Absorption units Lithium bromide–water absorption systems Thermodynamic analysis Design of single-effect LiBr–water absorption systems Ammonia–water absorption systems 6.5 Solar cooling with absorption refrigeration 6.6 Solar photovoltaic powered heating and cooling Exercises References 7 - Industrial Process Heat, Chemistry Applications, and Solar Dryers 7.1 Industrial process heat: general design considerations 7.1.1 Solar industrial air and water systems 7.2 Solar steam generation systems 7.2.1 Steam generation methods 7.2.2 Flash vessel design 7.3 Solar chemistry applications 7.3.1 Reforming of fuels 7.3.2 Fuel cells Basic characteristics Fuel cell chemistry Types of fuel cells Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) 7.3.3 Materials processing 7.3.4 Solar detoxification 7.4 Solar dryers 7.4.1 Active solar energy dryers Distributed type Integral type Mixed-mode type 7.4.2 Passive solar energy dryers Distributed type Integral type Mixed-mode type 7.4.3 General remarks 7.5 Greenhouses 7.5.1 Greenhouse materials Exercises Assignment References 8 - Solar Desalination Systems 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Water and energy 8.1.2 Water demand and consumption 8.1.3 Desalination and energy 8.2 Desalination processes 8.2.1 Desalination systems exergy analysis 8.2.2 Exergy analysis of thermal desalination systems 8.3 Direct collection systems 8.3.1 Classification of solar distillation systems 8.3.2 Performance of solar stills 8.3.3 General comments 8.4 Indirect collection systems 8.4.1 The multi-stage flash process 8.4.2 The multiple-effect boiling process 8.4.3 The vapor compression process 8.4.4 Reverse osmosis 8.4.5 Electrodialysis 8.4.6 Membrane distillation Solar-powered membrane distillation (SPMD) 8.5 Review of renewable energy desalination systems 8.5.1 Solar thermal energy 8.5.2 Solar ponds 8.5.3 Solar photovoltaic technology 8.5.4 Wind power 8.5.5 Hybrid solar PV-wind power 8.5.6 Geothermal energy 8.6 Process selection Exercises References 9 - Photovoltaic Systems 9.1 Semiconductors 9.1.1 p–n junction 9.1.2 Photovoltaic effect 9.1.3 PV cell characteristics 9.2 Photovoltaic panels 9.2.1 PV arrays 9.2.2 Types of PV technology 9.3 Related equipment 9.3.1 Batteries 9.3.2 Inverters 9.3.3 Charge controllers 9.3.4 Peak-power trackers 9.3.5 Remote fault detection, diagnosis, and cleaning of photovoltaic systems 9.4 Applications 9.4.1 Direct-coupled PV system 9.4.2 Stand-alone applications 9.4.3 Grid-connected system 9.4.4 Hybrid-connected system 9.4.5 Types of applications Building-integrated photovoltaics 9.5 Design of PV systems 9.5.1 Electrical loads 9.5.2 Absorbed solar radiation 9.5.3 Cell temperature 9.5.4 Sizing of PV systems Grid-connected systems Stand-alone systems 9.6 Tilt and yield 9.6.1 Fixed tilt 9.6.2 Trackers 9.6.3 Shading 9.6.4 Tilting versus spacing 9.7 Concentrating PV 9.8 Hybrid PV/T systems PV/T collectors with liquid heat recovery PV/T collectors with air-heat recovery 9.8.1 Hybrid PV/T applications 9.8.2 Water and air-heating BIPV/T Exercises Assignment 1 Assignment 2 Assignment 3 Assignment 4 References 10 - Solar Thermal Power Systems 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Parabolic trough collector systems 10.2.1 Description of the PTC power plants 10.2.2 Outlook for the technology 10.3 Power tower systems 10.3.1 System characteristics 10.4 Dish systems 10.4.1 Dish collector system characteristics 10.5 Thermal analysis of solar power plants 10.6 Solar updraft towers 10.6.1 Initial steps and first demonstration 10.6.2 Thermal analysis of solar updraft tower plants 10.7 Solar ponds 10.7.1 Practical design considerations 10.7.2 Methods of heat extraction 10.7.3 Transmission estimation 10.7.4 Experimental solar ponds 10.7.5 Applications Exercises Assignment References 11 . Designing and Modeling Solar Energy Systems 11.1 F-chart method and program 11.1.1 Performance and design of liquid-based solar heating systems Storage capacity correction Collector flow rate correction Load heat exchanger size correction 11.1.2 Performance and design of air-based solar heating systems Pebble-bed storage size correction Air flow rate correction 11.1.3 Performance and design of solar service water systems 11.1.4 Thermosiphon solar water-heating systems 11.1.5 General remarks 11.1.6 F-chart program 11.2 Utilizability method 11.2.1 Hourly utilizability 11.2.2 Daily utilizability 11.2.3 Design of active systems with the utilizability method Hourly utilizability Daily utilizability 11.3 The Φ ̄, f-chart method 11.3.1 Storage tank-losses correction 11.3.2 Heat exchanger correction 11.4 Unutilizability method 11.4.1 Direct gain systems 11.4.2 Collector storage walls 11.4.3 Active collection with passive storage systems 11.5 Modeling and simulation of solar energy systems 11.5.1 TRNSYS simulation program TRNSYS demo 11.5.2 WATSUN simulation program 11.5.3 Polysun simulation program 11.5.4 System advisor model 11.6 Artificial intelligence in solar energy systems 11.6.1 Artificial neural networks Biological and artificial neurons Artificial neural network principles Network parameter selection Back-propagation architecture General regression neural network architecture Group method of data handling neural network architecture ANN applications in solar energy systems 11.6.2 Genetic algorithms GA applications in solar energy systems GENOPT and TRNOPT programs 11.6.3 Fuzzy logic Membership functions Logical operations If-then rules Fuzzy inference system Fuzzy systems applications in solar energy systems 11.6.4 Hybrid systems 11.7 Limitations of simulations Exercises Assignments 1 Design of a solar thermal system Problem options for various students 2 Simulation of a solar domestic water-heating system Collector parameters Storage tank parameters Pump characteristics 3 Simulation of a simple building with daylight access References 12 - Solar Economic Analysis 12.1 Life cycle analysis 12.1.1 Life cycle costing 12.2 Time value of money 12.3 Description of the life cycle analysis method 12.3.1 Fuel cost of non-solar energy system examples 12.3.2 Hot-water system example 12.3.3 Hot-water system optimization example 12.3.4 Payback time Not discounting fuel savings Discounting fuel savings 12.4 The P1, P2 method 12.4.1 Optimization using P1, P2 method 12.5 Uncertainties in economic analysis Exercises Assignment #1 Assignment #2: optimized design of a solar thermal system References 13 - Wind Energy Systems 13.1 Wind characteristics 13.1.1 Wind speed profiles 13.1.2 Wind speed variation with time 13.1.3 Statistical representation of wind speed 13.1.4 Wind resources 13.1.5 Wind resource atlases 13.1.6 Detailed study of wind speed 13.2 One-dimensional model for wind turbines 13.3 Wind turbines 13.3.1 Types of wind turbines 13.3.2 Power characteristics of wind turbines 13.3.3 Offshore wind turbines 13.3.4 Wind parks 13.4 Economic issues 13.5 Wind-energy exploitation problems Exercises Assignment References 1 - Nomenclature Radiation nomenclature . Subscripts . Symbols . Greek . Abbreviations 2 - Definitions 3 - Sun Diagrams Reference 4 - Terrestrial Spectral Irradiance 5 - Thermo-physical Properties of Materials and Other Useful Information References 6 - Equations for the Curves of Figs. 3.38–3.40 References 7 - Meteorological Data United States . Europe Rest of the world 8 - Present Worth Factors 9 - Excel Functions—Goal Seek and Solver A9.1 Function Goal Seek A9.2 Function Solver Example 1: Solving simultaneous linear equations Example 2: Solving the double-glazed flat plate collector example (Example 3.2) A9.2.1 Solver options Reference 10 - System Advisor Model A10.1 Performance models included in the program A10.2 Financial models A10.2.1 Residential and commercial projects A10.2.2 Power purchase agreement (PPA) projects A10.2.3 Project cash flow A10.2.4 Incentives A10.3 Performance models short descriptions A10.3.1 Photovoltaic systems Detailed photovoltaic model PVWatts model High-concentration photovoltaic model A10.3.2 Energy storage Detailed photovoltaic–battery model PVWatts–battery model Generic system–battery model A10.3.3 Concentrating solar power Parabolic trough (physical model) Parabolic trough (empirical model) Power tower molten salt model Linear Fresnel molten salt model Linear Fresnel direct steam model Concentrating solar power generic model Parabolic trough–heat model Linear Fresnel direct steam–heat model A10.3.4 Marine energy Wave energy model Tidal energy A10.3.5 Wind energy A10.3.6 Fuel cell–photovoltaic–battery A10.3.7 Geothermal A10.3.8 Solar water heating A10.3.9 Biomass combustion A10.3.10 Generic system A10.4 Financial models A10.4.1 Residential and commercial owner A10.4.2 Third-party ownership A10.4.3 Power purchase agreement A10.4.4 Single owner A10.4.5 Partnership flip with and without debt A10.4.6 Sale-leaseback A10.4.7 Merchant plant A10.4.8 Levelized cost of energy calculator A10.5 Solar and wind resource files Index A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Z Back Cover