Sheng : Rise of a Kenyan Swahili Vernacular

Of interest to linguists, artists, ma-youth, scholars of urban studies, educationalists, policy makers and language planners who are grappling with the challenges of multilingualism and language of education in Kenya. The city of Nairobi is a rich context for the study of sociolinguistic phenomena. The coexistence of speakers of many different languages, further differentiated by socio-economic status, age and ethnicity provide conditions for the development of a mixed code such as Sheng, an urban variety of Kenyan Swahili which has morphed from a "youth language" into a vernacular of wider use. Sheng is a unique phenomenon in the study of linguistic change and innovation in an African context, a reflection of the ethnolinguistic diversity of Kenya, and language asymmetry created by socio-economic disparities. It also provides a window into understanding the processes of urban multilingualism, within the specific space structuring of Nairobi city. This book is a detailed account of the rise and development of Sheng, its linguistic structure, social functions, and possible future directions. The author's analysis ofits presence in newspapers, TV, radio and online, makes it clear that Sheng functions as a particularly useful lens through which to explore contemporary Kenya. Frontcover Contents List of Illustrations Preface Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations Introduction A note on Sheng orthography 1 Sheng as Kenyan Swahili Folk theories of Sheng Dialects and vernaculars ‘Urban youth languages’ Is Sheng a pidgin or a creole? Kinubi: a creole language of Kenya Other African creoles: Sango, Lingala and Nigerian Pidgin English Swahili as a macrolanguage So, what is Sheng? ‘Kenyanese’: a continuum of speech codes 2 An overview of language in Kenya: power vs solidarity Swahili and nationalism Language and state identity: Kenya vs Tanzania The policy of language in education 3 Nairobi: a linguistic mosaic and crucible of Sheng The colonial city The sociolinguistic context Attitudes towards Sheng and other languages Vernacular Swahilis The experiment Teenage attitudes towards languages Adult attitudes towards Sheng and Kenyan Swahili Observations Summary 4 ‘Kenyan Swahili’: complex and multifaceted Grammatical features of Kenyan Swahili Analogical change Habitual tense -anga Rule extension: plural suffix -ni Diminutive ka- and augmentative ki- Phonology -enye relative pronoun Noun classification Locatives -ni and -ko Contact influences on Kenyan Swahili Dholuo Gikuyu Gikuyu slang in Sheng 5 Features of Sheng Phonological innovations Lexical borrowing Meaning shift Polysemy Synonymy Transpositions (Pig Latin) Sheng verbs Narratives of local experience Analysis of Sheng narratives Grammar in Sheng narratives Content of Sheng narratives Summary 6 Expanded domains and global influences The Nairobian newspaper Sheng in social media GoSheng Sheng and the jua kali economy Sheng and corporate advertising Sheng in rural areas and schools Sheng and the diaspora (majuu): transatlantic influences Sheng in reggae Jamaicanisms in Sheng (Ma-)Babi ‘Big Up’ 7 Sheng in Practice ‘Kuna Sheng’ lyrics by Jua Cali Ghetto Radio FM: ‘The official Sheng station’ Bonoko Deh Shujaaz 8 Conclusion: The Rise of a Swahili Vernacular The Sheng generation Language attitudes Sheng in education and the question of vernacular instruction Is Sheng the real McCoy? Appendix: The Nairobian, ‘Landlord Anakunyima Hao’ Sheng glossary Bibliography Index African multilingualism is changing the languages and identities of urban communities, and indeed entire nations. Sheng, a non-standard variety of Kenyan Swahili closely associated with Nairobi's low-income urban youth, reflects the dynamics of rapid, on-going urbanisation processes taking place in Africa. It is a product of the language dynamics of Nairobi city specifically, and more broadly of Kenya, within the context of a distinctively stratified, multilingual society in search of a modern identity. Sheng has gained a position as one of the many varieties of Swahili; it is the product of a specific linguistic ecology in which Swahili language continues to evolve and change. Research shows that it is recognised by both speakers and those in the wider speech community as a distinctive language variety used mainly, but not exclusively, by the younger generation. Sheng is linked to transnational African diaspora influences and global black culture, especially through social media, hip hop and reggae music. It has also entered mainstream domains of language use in the Kenyan media, as well as political and corporate advertising. It can be seen to be changing from a restricted, in-group and covert youth language into a vernacular of wider communication in Nairobi and beyond. Sheng is a language phenomenon that has a bearing on Kenya's national identity and its sociolinguistic future.