Set in stone ? : war memorialisation as a long-term and continuing process in the UK, France and the USA

This book provides a holistic and longitudinal study of war memorialisation in the UK, France and the USA from 1860 to 2014. Moving beyond the social-political circumstances of a memorial’s construction, this study examines memorialisation as a continuing and transformative process. It explores the many ways in which war memorials are repeatedly appropriated, and re-appropriated, undergoing both physical and symbolic transformations. In order to study this full range of transformations, this book presents a unique analytical model that conceptualises objects of memory within three intersecting timescales: the chronological timescale, the conflict timescale and the object timescale. This new methodology facilitates an innovative, holistic approach of understanding engagement with a monument at any given moment in time, allowing meaningful comparisons to be made across both spatial and cultural boundaries. In doing so, it enables an approach to the cultural heritage conflict that moves beyond the socio-political to conceptualise war memorials within a shared cultural experience. Cover 1 Copyright Information 2 Contents 3 List of Figures 7 Abstract 13 Introduction 15 1.1 The Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II 15 1.1.1 A modern memorial; design and purpose 15 1.1.2 Broader themes 18 1.2 A new approach: three parallel timescales 19 1.2.1. O-P Chronological timescale 19 1.2.2. CT Time passed from conflict 20 1.2.3. MT Time passed from construction of memorial 20 1.3 Chapters 21 Figure 1.1 Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II (2000), Washington, D.C. USA. 16 Figure 1.2 Entrance to the memorial and crane sculpture by Nina Akamu. The Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II (2000), Washington, D.C. USA. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 16 Figure 1.3 Raised reflecting pool with five large rocks, the temple bell is visible on the top left of the memorial, and the quote ‘Here we admit a wrong. Here we affirm our commitment as a nation to equal justice under the law’ is inscribed on the wall. 17 Figure 1.4 Three parallel timescales relating to the understanding of a war memorial at any given point in time: O-P: 1860 – 2014 chronological timescale/ memorial tradition, CT: Time passed from conflict, MT: Time passed from memorial construction 20 Figure 1.5 Chronological periods addressed within each chapter: Chapter 4: 1860-1914, Chapter 5: 1914-1939, Chapter 6: 1939-2014 22 Background and Literature 24 2.1 Introduction 24 2.2 The beginnings of war memorial studies 24 2.3 Culture of memory and memory studies 24 2.4 Wider audiences for the memory of conflict 25 2.5 The First World War and its war memorials 26 2.6 Second World War memorialisation 27 2.7 American memorial scholarship 27 2.8 French memorial scholarship 28 2.9 Trauma and lack of memorialisation 28 2.10 An inclusive approach 29 2.11 A biographic approach to the object 30 2.12 The relationship between a memorial and its surroundings 31 2.13 War memorials: tourism, heritage and conservation 31 2.14 Conclusion 32 Methodology 34 3.1 Introduction 34 3.2 Terminology and definitions 34 3.3 Choice of study areas 34 3.4 Choice of conflict 36 3.5 Research Methods 36 3.5.1 Field Research 36 3.5.2 Documentary research 39 3.5.3 Interviews 40 3.6 Approach and analysis of data 40 3.6.1 War memorial as category of object 41 3.6.2 War memorial tradition 42 3.6.3 Political and psychological functions 42 3.6.4 Continued significance 42 3.6.5 A biographic approach 42 3.6.6 Engagement 43 3.6.7 Three parallel timescales 43 O-P Chronological timescale 43 CT Time passed from conflict 44 MT Time passed from construction of memorial 44 3.7 Conclusion 44 Figure 3.1 Franco-Prussian War Memorial to the Prussian Infantry Regiment n.78 with surrounding graves visible behind the monument (circa 1871) near Flavigny, France . (Photograph by the author, 2012). 35 Figure 3.2 Questions addressed during field research 37 Figure 3.3 National Memorial Arboretum, (2001) Alrewas, Staffordshire, UK. (Photograph by the author, 2012) 38 Figure 3.4 Historic postcard of First World War Memorial (1924), Sedan, France (Postcard collection of the author). 38 Figure 3.5 German Franco-Prussian War Memorial with German symbolism defaced (circa 1871), near Vionville, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012) 39 Figure 3.6 Interviews with individuals associated with memorials 41 Early War Memorialisation Processes: O-P =1870-1914 45 4.2 Initial post-war processes of memorialisation (CT 25 years) 66 4.3.1 Introduction 66 4.3.2 Appropriation of the bravery of the common soldier 66 4.3.3 Memorial Associations 68 4.3.4 The site of conflict: battlefield tourism and battlefield memorials 70 4.3.5 French and German memorials on the eastern border 72 4.3.6 Reflexivity of memorials: memorialisation of earlier conflicts 74 4.3.7 Reflexivity of memorialisation in the lead up to the First World War 76 4.3.8 Reconciliatory memorials in the lead up to the First World War 77 4.4 Conclusion 78 Figure 4.1 Three parallel timescales relating to the understanding of a war memorial at any given point in time: O-P: 1860 – 2014 Chronological timescale CT: Time passed from conflict MT: Time passed from memorial construction 46 Figure 4.2 Soldiers’ National Memorial, National Cemetery (cemetery 1963, monument 1869), Gettysburg, P.A., USA (Photograph by the author, 2012). 49 Figure 4.3 Detail of individual grave markers at Soldiers’ National Memorial, National Cemetery (1864), Gettysburg, P.A., USA. (Photograph by the author, 2012) 49 Figure 4.4 French and German Franco-Prussian War Memorials located opposite each other Cimetière du Faubourg (circa 1873), Mouzon France. (Photograph by the author, 2012) 50 Figure 4.5 Joint French and German Franco Prussian War Memorials, (circa 1873) Villemontry France. (Photograph by the author, 2012) (The memorials have clearly been moved at some point during their history, but given the relationship between other similar 51 Figure 4.6 French and German Franco-Prussian War memorials located opposite each other Cimetière Communal (1873), Mouzon France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 51 Figure 4.7 (Left) French and (Right) German memorials located opposite each other in Mouzon Cemetery (1873), Mouzon, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 52 (begun 1878 and completed 1890) Bazeilles, France. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 53 Figure 4.8 Memorial and ossuary, Cimetière St Charles (original circa 1878, reconstructed circa 1912), Sedan, France. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 53 Figure 4.9 Ossuary, inside which are the visible remains of French victims of the conflict, 53 Figure 4.10 The church of Bazeilles, following the Battle of Bazeilles, 1st September 1870. 54 Figure 4.11 German memorials within the ossuary, Bazeilles, France (Photograph courtesy of John Carman). 54 Figure 4.12 Monument marking the grave of Benjamin Eugene Commander and all French soldiers killed in the municipality of Gorze, (circa 1871) Gorze France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 55 Figure 4.13 Memorial to the 5th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment, (1888) Gettysburg, P.A. USA. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 57 Figure 4.14 Franco-Prussian War memorials in the Cimetiére de Madeline, (Left) Soldiers Memorial , (Right) Memorial to Captain Jean-François Vogel (circa 1872) Amiens, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 58 Figure 4.15 Detail of the Franco-Prussian War memorial demonstrating the numbered marker system, 1870 memorial, Cimetiére de Madeline, Amiens, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 58 Figure 4.16 Royal Warwickshire Regiment Memorial Fountain in its original location in Chamberlain Square (circa 1930) Birmingham, UK. 59 Figure 4.17 Royal Warwickshire Regiment Sudan Campaign memorial fountain, Birmingham Central Library, Birmingham, UK. (Photograph by the author, 2010). 59 Figure 4.18 Original memorial to Lieutenant Joseph Felix Vever, rededicated to the Franco-Prussian War, (original circa 1855, rededication circa 1871) Cimetiére Saint-Simon, Metz , (Postcard collection of the author). 60 Figure 4.19 Details of Franco-Prussian War Memorial, showing the original dedication to Lieutenant Vever who died during the Crimean War, Cimetiére de l’Est, Metz, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 60 Figure 4.20 Details of Franco-Prussian War Memorial, showing the subsequent dedication to those from Metz who died during the Franco-Prussian War Cimetiére de l’Est, Metz, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 61 Figure 4.21 T.L. Dunkin Memorial (circa 1986), Manassas, V.A. USA. (Photograph by the author, 2012) 62 Figure 4.22 Engraving of Bartow Memorial, (1861) Manassas National Battlefield Park, V.A. USA. (Image courtesy of Mahr, repost, Manassas National Battlefield Park. (Copy taken by the author with permission from the Manassas National Battlefield Park).) 62 Figure 4.23 Remains of the Bartow Memorial, Manassas National Battlefield Park, V.A. USA 63 Figure 4.24 Franco-Prussian War memorial (1875) Bazeilles, France. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 64 Figure 4.25 Detail of civilian casualty list, Franco-Prussian War memorial (1875), Bazeilles, France 64 Figure 4.26 Monument aux victims de l’explosion accidentelle de la Cartoucherie (1871), Dunkerque Cemetery (Photograph by the author, 2012). 65 Figure 4.27 The Arsenal Memorial, Congressional Cemetery, (circa 1864), Washington D.C., United States 65 Figure 4.28 Civil War Memorial (1909), Downtown Charlottesville, VA, USA. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 66 Figure 4.29 Confederate Civil War Memorial, Confederate Cemetery (1893), Charlottesville, V.A. USA. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 67 Figure 4.30 Detail of the engraving on Confederate Civil War Memorial, Charlottesville, V.A. USA. 67 Figure 4.31 Franco-Prussian War Memorial, (1897) Sedan, France. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 68 Figure 4.32 Detail of Franco-Prussian War Memorial relief panels, Sedan, France. Showing ‘ Maison de la dernière cartouche’ at Bazeilles (above) and ‘Charge des Chasseurs d’Afrique’ at Floing (below). (Photographs by the author, 2011). 69 Figure 4.33 Memorial on the Rotunda, (1906) University of Virginia, Charlottesville, V.A. United States 70 Figure 4.34 Clark’s Battery Memorial, Sickles Avenue, (1888) Gettysburg, P.A. National Battlefield Park, United States. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 71 Figure 4.35 17th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment Monument, (1889) DeTrobriand Avenue, The Wheatfield, Gettysburg P.A. United States (Photograph by 71 the author, 2012). 71 Figure 4.36 Franco-Prussian War memorial commemorating the spot where Kaiser Wilhelm rested, Rezonville, 72 Figure 4.37 Scene of Kaiser Wilhelm resting on a ladder from the back of the monumental bench 73 Figure 4.38 German memorial, (circa 1900) Vionville, France (at the time part of the regions annexed by Germany) (Postcard collection of the author). 74 Figure 4.39 Franco-Prussian War memorial to the 5th Division Prussian Infantry (circa 1900), near Rezonville, France (Postcard collection of the author). 74 Figure 4.40 Memorial to historic events, (1873) Cassel, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 75 Figure 4.41 Napoleonic War Memorial erected by the Souvenir Français (est1887) Place du Chateau, Gorze, France (annexed by Germany) (Photograph by the author, 2011). 75 Figure 4.42 Napoleonic War Memorial erected by the Souvenir Français (circa 1887) Place du Chateau, Gorze, France (annexed by Germany) (Photograph by the author, 2011). 76 Figure 4.43 Bataille de Bouvines Memorial, Bouvines (Nord) Colone, (1914) (Postcard collection 77 Figure 4.44 Norman Cross Memorial (photograph taken 2012, memorial not in original location) (Photograph by the author, 2012). 77 of the author). 77 Figure 5.1 Three parallel timescales relating to the understanding of a war memorial at any given point in time: O-P: 1914-1939 Chronological timescale CT: Time passed from conflict MT: Time passed from memorial construction A: Processes of engagement wit 80 Post-First World War Memorialisation Processes: O-P = 1914-1939 80 5.1 Introduction 80 O-P = War memorial tradition 1914-1939 80 CT = Time passed from conflict 80 MT = Time passed from memorial construction 80 (CT 25 years) 107 5.3.1 Introduction 107 5.3.2 Development of conflict narratives: Metz’s First World War Memorial 108 5.3.3 Reflexivity of memorial process in the lead up to the Second World War: Guynemer’s memorial 109 5.3.4 Continued memorialisation of the Civil War in the United States 110 5.3.5 Reflexivity of memorialisation; memorials to marginalised groups 110 5.3.6 Reconciliatory memorials in the lead up to the Second World War 111 5.3 Second phase processes of memorialisation 107 5.4 Conclusion 112 Figure 5.3 First World War memorial, in its parkland location (circa 1919) Kinver, Staffordshire. 82 Figure 5.4 Common Wealth War Graves, Arras Cemetery, France (Photograph by the author, 2012) 83 Figure 5.5 (Left) First World War Memorial, (circa 1918) Tanny, France and (Right) First World War (circa 1918) Memorial, Bellicourt, France, both with standardised poilus figure . (Photographs by the author, 2012). 84 Figure 5.6 First World War memorial (1924), Sedan, France (Photograph by the author, 2011). For historic postcard of the memorials see Figure 3.3. 85 Figure 5.7 First World War Memorial (1920), Gettysburg, P.A. United States. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 85 Figure 5.9 Barrow-upon-Soar war memorial, (1921) provided a permanent memorial to individuals listed on the temporary memorial (Photograph by the author, 2014). 86 Figure 5.10 First World War Memorial Sopwell Lane St Albans (1920-21). One of ten memorials erected in St Albans Abbely Parish which commemorates the dead of individual streets. (Image courtesy of John Carman). 87 Figure 5.11 Victory parade through the Arc de Triomphe depicting temporary cenotaph (bottom right), Paris, France 14th July 1919 (Postcard collection of the author). 88 Figure 5.12 First World War Memorial listing the names of the dead, (circa 1918) Comines, France. 89 Figure 5.13 First World War Memorial surrounded by individual memorial plaques, Comines, France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 90 Figure 5.14 Individual plaques First World War memorial, Comines, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 91 Figure 5.15 Pennsylvania State Memorial (1910), Gettysburg, P.A., United States (Photograph by the author, 2012). 92 Figure 5.16 War Memorial 1214-1914, (1934) St Peter’s Church, Bouvines, France 93 Figure 5.17 Original French First World War Memorial (1924), Metz (Postcard collection of the author). 94 Figure 5.19 1870 Ossuary at Sedan, surrounded by First World War Graves. Cimetière St, Charles, Sedan, France. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 95 Figure 5.20 First World War Memorial Window which includes earlier casualties from the Boer War St Mary’s Roman Catholic Church, Brewood, Staffordshire (Photograph courtesy of Paul Collins). 96 Figure 5.21 First World War Memorial Plaque which includes earlier casualties from the Boer War St Mary’s Roman Catholic Church, Brewood, Staffordshire (Photograph courtesy of Paul Collins). 96 Figure 5.23 Lieutenant James Gordon Keay, First World War Memorial, St Augustine of Hippo Church, Edgbaston, 97 United Kingdom. (Photograph by the author, 2009). 97 Figure 5.24 Kaiser Wilhelm memorial bench Franco-Prussian War, Rezonville, France. (For original see Figure 4.36. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 98 Figure 5.25 French memorial, built onto German base Vionville (for original see Figure 4.40, photograph by the author, 2012). 99 Figure 5.26 French postcard depicting the destruction of the equestrian statue of Kaiser Wilhelm, 18 November, 1918, Metz, France (Postcard collection of the author). 99 Figure 5.27 Temporary statue of a French poilu erected on the base of the former Kaiser Wilhelm statue. 100 Figure 5.28 Postcard depicting the original statue of Kaiser Wilhelm on the left and the First World War memorial erected in its place on the right 100 (Below) Detail of beheaded German eagle 101 Figure 5.29 (Above) German Franco-Prussian War memorial near Vionville with German symbolism defaced 101 Figure 5.30 (Above) German Franco-Prussian War memorial in its original condition and (Below) in its present (2012), Rezonville, France. (Postcard collection of author, photograph by the author, 2012). 102 Figure 5.31 (Left) German Franco-Prussian War memorial original condition and (Right) in its present condition (2011), Gravelotte, France. (Postcard collection of author, Photograph by the author, 2011). 103 Figure 5.32 (Above) German Franco- Prussian War memorial in its original condition and (Below) in its present condition (2012), Vionville, France. (Postcard collection of author, photograph by the author, 2012). 104 Figure 5.33 ‘Heldenfriedhof’ monument , German First World War Memorial circa 1915, Cimetière Saint Charles, Sedan, France (Postcard collection of the author). 105 Figure 5.34 German First World War Memorial, Cimetière Nord, Comines, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 105 Figure 5.35 Heldenfriedhof’ monument , German First World War Memorial, 2012 Cimetière Saint Charles, Sedan, France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 106 Figure 5.36 The destroyed village of Fleury devant Douaumont preserved as a memorial to the conflict. 106 Figure 5.37 First World War memorial in the destroyed village of Vaux (1924),Vaux France. 107 Figure 5.38 First World War memorial in the destroyed village of Fleury (circa 1920) near Douaumont, France. 107 Figure 5.39 First World War Memorial, constructed next to original monument, Metz, France (1935) 108 Figure 5.40 The temporary Guynemer monument (1934), Dunkerque on the front cover of the L’Illustation newspaper, August 1934. (Newspaper cover, 109 Figure 5.41 Completed Memorial to Guynemer, (1938) Dunkerque, France, (Postcard collection of the author). 109 collection of the author). 109 Figure 5.42 Memorial to Francis Stebbings Bartow (1936), Manassas, V.A. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 110 Figure 5.43 ‘Nuns of the Battlefield’ memorial, Washington D.C (1925) (Photograph by the author 2012) 111 Figure 5.44 Eternal Light Peace Memorial, (1938), Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. United States. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 112 Figure 6.1 Three parallel timescales relating to the understanding of a war memorial at any given point in time: O-P: 1939 –2014 Chronological timescale, CT: Time passed from conflict, MT: Time passed from memorial construction, A: Processes of engagement 113 Post-Second World War Memorialisation: O-P = 1939- 2014 113 6.2 Post Second-World War processes of memorial construction 114 6.2.1 Second World War memorials (CT 25 years) 134 6.3.1 Introduction 134 6.3.2 Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II, Washington, D.C. 135 6.3.3 Bomber Command Memorial 137 6.3.4 Continued engagement with a memorial (MT> 50 years) 138 6.3.4.1 Visits to memorials 138 6.3.4.2 The names of the dead 140 6.3.4.3 New ways of engaging with memorials 141 6.3.5 New meanings for memorials 142 6.3.5.1 Memorials as protest 142 6.3.5.2 Memorials signifying community 143 6.3.6 Relocation of memorials 143 6.3.6.1 Relocating ‘orphaned’ memorials 144 6.3.6.2 Relocating battlefield memorials 146 6.3.7 Memorials as heritage 146 6.3.7.1 Heritage trails in eastern France 147 6.3.7.2 Deliberate lack of engagement; attempts at forgetting 151 6.3 Second phase processes of memorialisation 134 6.4 Conclusion 153 Figure 6.2 First World War Memorial, Codsall, Staffordshire, United Kingdom. with addition of Second World War memorial plaques. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 114 Figure 6.3 First World War Memorial, Kinver Staffordshire, United Kingdom with Second World War names added to the obelisk, (Photograph by the author, 2012). 114 Figure 6.4 First (Above) World War Memorial Douzy, France, with detail of addition of Second World War casualties to base (Below). (Photograph by the author, 2012). 115 Figure 6.5 First World War Memorial with addition of Second World War memorial plaques. Bazeilles, France. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 116 Figure 6.6 French War Memorial, Sablon, (1948) near Metz, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 117 Figure 6.7 War Memorial in its present form, Metz, France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 118 Figure.6.8 First World War Memorial in its present position following retrieval from the basement and restoration St Chads, Birmingham, UK 118 Figure 6.10 Fragment of original Guynemer Memorial incorporated into the 1989 monument, Dunkerque, France. 120 Figure 6.9 Guynemer Memorial, outside the Musée de la Bataille de Dunkerque et de l’opération Dynamo (1989), Dunkerque, France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 120 Figure 6.11 (Left) Guynemer memorial, 1989 outside the Musée de la Bataille de Dunkerque et de l’opération Dynamo . (Right) Detail of the Guynemer memorial 1989, depicting the original memorial. Dunkerque, France. 121 Figure 6.12 New First World War Memorial, located in the centre of the village (circa 2010) Kinver, Staffordshire (Photograph by the author, 2012). 121 Figure 6.13 War Memorial Kinver, Staffordshire. Original First World War Memorial with addition of gates to commemorate the centenary 1914-2014 (Photograph by the author, 2014). 122 Figure 6.14 War Memorial (1995) in Cathedral grounds, Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom. 124 Figure 6.15 First World War Memorial, Pearl Insurance, Peterborough. (Photograph of image exhibited at the unveiling of the memorial, taken by the author, 25th June 2012). 124 Figure 6.16 New War Memorial on the high street (2012), Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom 125 Figure 6.17 Peterborough War Memorial Fund, donors certificate. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 125 Figure 6.18 Peterborough memorial dedication ceremony, 25th June, 2012. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 126 Figure 6.19 The African American Civil War Memorial, (1997), Washington, D.C. (Photograph courtesy of 128 Hari Jones, 2012). 128 Figure 6.21 Women in Military Service for America Memorial, (1992), Arlington Cemetery, Washington, D.C. 129 Figure 6.22 The Railway Industry Memorial, UK National Memorial Arboretum (2012), Alrewas, Staffordshire. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 131 Figure 6.23 Australian Battle of Fromelles Memorial (1998), Fromelles France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 133 Figure 6.24 Australian Memorial to the Battle of Fromelles, Somme, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 134 Figure 6.25 Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II (2000), Washington, D.C. 135 Figure 6.26 Mike Masaoka quote on the Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II. 136 Figure 6.27 Crane sculpture by Nina Akamu. The Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II, Washington, D.C. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 137 Figure 6.28 Poppy cross left at Commonwealth 139 Figure 6.29 Photographs left at Commonwealth 139 War Graves Cemetery in Arras, France. 139 War Graves in Arras Cemetery, France. 139 Figure 6.30 First World War memorial plaques, Preston Museum and Art Gallery, Preston, UK 140 Figure 6.31 First World War Memorial, Preston, UK. Light installation by Andy McKeown on Preston Cenotaph, specially commissioned by the Preston Remembers project with the support of the Arts Council 23rd November 2013 (Photograph by the author, 2013). 142 Figure 6.32 First World War Memorial, Preston, UK. Reverse illuminated with images of the deceased. Light installation by Andy McKeown on Preston Cenotaph, specially commissioned by the Preston Remembers project with the support of the Arts Council 23rd N 142 Figure 6.33 Stourbridge First World War Memorial (1923) in its current location in Mary Stevens Park 144 Figure 6.34 ‘Orphaned’ monuments, National Memorial Arboretum, London and Lancashire Insurance Company First World War Memorial (left), Phoenix Staff First World War Memorial (right) Alwreas, Staffordshire, United Kingdom (Photograph by the author, 2011). 145 Figure 6.35 ‘Orphaned’ memorial plaques at the National Memorial Arboretum. Alrewas, Staffordshire, United Kingdom. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 145 Figure 6.36 Battlefield Memorial in the Ulster Memorial Tower. ‘In loving memory of LT. Wright Killed near this spot never forgottin [sic]’ (Photograph by the author, 2012). 146 Figure 6.37 Photographs of memorial in its original location and of LT. Wright placed next to the memorial.(Photograph by the author, 2012). 147 Figure 6.38 Memorial to General Margueritte in the Sedanese region of France. This memorial now forms part of a heritage memorial trail which documents the progression of the Battle of Sedan, 1870. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 149 Figure 6.39 Information board outside the tourist information centre in Sedan, which describes the town in terms of its unfair victimhood (Photograph by the author, 2012). 149 Figure 6.40 German memorial near the village of Floing, with interpretation board. (Photograph by the author, 2012).70 150 Figure 6.41 The Memorial to Kaiser Wilhelm in its current state, Rezonville, France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 151 Figure 6.42 The memorial as it is presented hidden behind a low hedge, Rezonville, France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 152 Figure 6.43 Memorial plaque in remembrance of those who were imprisoned and died at the fort during the First World War (Photograph by the author, 2012). 153 Figure 6.44 Heldenfriedhof First World War Memorial, Cimetière Saint Charles, Sedan, France. 154 Figure 6.45 (Left) Heldenfriedhof First World War Memorial, interior and (Right) exterior, illustrating level of decay. Cimetière Saint Charles, Sedan, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 155 Discussion 156 7.1 Introduction 156 7.2 Part One: Holistic approach: an examination of war memorial processes 156 7.2.1 Examination of the longitudinal approach 156 7.2.1.1 Time frame 1 O-P: the chronological development of the war memorial tradition 1860-2014 157 7.2.1.2 Time frame 2 CT: the time that has passed from the conflict itself 160 Continued processes of memorialisation after autobiographical memory CT>AM 161 Collective Memory 162 Historical Memory 163 7.2.1.3 Time frame 3 MT: The biography of the memorial 164 7.2.2 Implications of the holistic approach 166 7.2.2.1 Challenging the assumption that memorialisation begins after the First World War 166 7.2.2.2 Challenging assumption that memorials are only important to those with autobiographical memories of the events they commemorate 168 7.2.2.3 Overcoming the dichotomy between political and person approaches 169 7.3 Part Two: Themes emerging from the longitudinal approach 169 7.3.1 Types of monument and their uses 169 7.3.1.1 Memorials to defeat 170 7.3.1.2 Memorials that mark the location of an historical event 170 7.3.1.3 Memorials that unite 170 7.3.1.4 Memorials that make a geographical claim 172 7.3.1.5 Memorials to marginalised individuals/groups 173 7.3.1.6 The Suitability of the memorial form 173 7.3.1.7 Memorials to promote or create tourism 174 7.3.2 Naming/ not naming- adding names 174 7.3.2.1 Petitions to add names after many years 175 Figure 7.1 The three parallel timescales relating to the understanding of a war memorial at any given point in time: O-P: 1860 – 2014 Chronological timescale, CT:Time passed from conflict, MT:Time passed from memorial construction 157 Figure 7.2 The chronological development of the war memorial tradition: O-P:1860 – 2014 Chronological timescale/ memorial tradition, CT:Time passed from conflict, MT:Time passed from memorial construction, x₁ :Point during the memorial tradition in which 158 Figure 7.3 (Left) Detail of Franco-Prussian War Memorial, Sedan, France. (Right) Confederate War Memorial, Charlottesville Virginia (Photographs by the author, 2012). 159 Figure 7.4 Vietnam Veterans Memorial (1982), Maya Lin Washington, D.C. United States (Photograph by the author, 2012). 160 Figure 7.5 Diagram illustrating the importance of the time that has passed from the conflict itself: O-P: 1860 – 2014 Chronological timescale, CT: Time passed from conflict, MT: Time passed from memorial construction, AM: Period of autobiographical memor 161 Figure 7.6 (Left) War Memorial, Kinver, Staffordshire. New First World War Memorial, located in the centre of the village (Photograph by the author, 2012). (Right) The African American Civil War Memorial, 1997, Washington, D.C. (Photograph courtesy of Ha 162 Figure 7.7 (Left) Battle of Bouvines Memorial 1914, Bouvines, France (Nord) Colone. (Middle) Norman Cross Memorial, 1914 near Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom. (Right) Napoleonic Memorial (circa 1887) Gorze, France. 163 Figure 7.8 The biography of a memorial: CT: Time passed from conflict, MT: Time passed from memorial construction, IT: Idea to construct a memorial is first conceived, DT: Destruction of the memorial 165 Figure 7.9 (Above) First World War Memorials, Metz, France original memorial, (Below) Second First World War memorial (contemporary photograph, original memorial contained reliefs and inscriptions, see 5.3.2) (Postcard collection of the author, photgraph 167 Figure 7.10 (Above) Original First World War memorial in parkland location. (Below) Second First World War memorial in village location, Kinver, Staffordshire, UK. 168 Figure 7.11 Position marker on the Battlefield of Manassas (Position 7th C.A. Regt Captured Pickett’S Battery July 21 1861) (Photograph by the author, 2012). 171 Figure 7.12 French and German Franco-Prussian War memorial located opposite each other Cimetière du Faubourg, Mouzon France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 172 Figure 7.13 Napoleonic War Memorial erected by the Souvenir Français on the site of a hospital used by the French military during the Napoleonic War (Photograph by the author, 2012). 173 Figure 7.14 This book provides a holistic and longitudinal study of war memorialisation in the UK, France and the USA from 1860 to 2014. Moving beyond the social-political circumstances of a memorial’s construction, this study examines memorialisation as a continuing and transformative process. It explores the many ways in which war memorials are repeatedly appropriated, and re-appropriated, undergoing both physical and symbolic transformations. In order to study this full range of transformations, this book presents a unique analytical model that conceptualises objects of memory within three intersecting timescales: the chronological timescale, the conflict timescale and the object timescale. This new methodology facilitates an innovative, holistic approach of understanding engagement with a monument at any given moment in time, allowing meaningful comparisons to be made across both spatial and cultural boundaries. In doing so, it enables an approach to the cultural heritage conflict that moves beyond the socio-political to conceptualise war memorials within a shared cultural experience. Cover 1 Copyright Information 2 Contents 3 List of Figures 7 Abstract 13 Introduction 15 1.1 The Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II 15 1.1.1 A modern memorial; design and purpose 15 1.1.2 Broader themes 18 1.2 A new approach: three parallel timescales 19 1.2.1. O-P Chronological timescale 19 1.2.2. CT Time passed from conflict 20 1.2.3. MT Time passed from construction of memorial 20 1.3 Chapters 21 Figure 1.1 Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II (2000), Washington, D.C. USA. 16 Figure 1.2 Entrance to the memorial and crane sculpture by Nina Akamu. The Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II (2000), Washington, D.C. USA. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 16 Figure 1.3 Raised reflecting pool with five large rocks, the temple bell is visible on the top left of the memorial, and the quote ‘Here we admit a wrong. Here we affirm our commitment as a nation to equal justice under the law’ is inscribed on the wall. 17 Figure 1.4 Three parallel timescales relating to the understanding of a war memorial at any given point in time: O-P: 1860 – 2014 chronological timescale/ memorial tradition, CT: Time passed from conflict, MT: Time passed from memorial construction 20 Figure 1.5 Chronological periods addressed within each chapter: Chapter 4: 1860-1914, Chapter 5: 1914-1939, Chapter 6: 1939-2014 22 Background and Literature 24 2.1 Introduction 24 2.2 The beginnings of war memorial studies 24 2.3 Culture of memory and memory studies 24 2.4 Wider audiences for the memory of conflict 25 2.5 The First World War and its war memorials 26 2.6 Second World War memorialisation 27 2.7 American memorial scholarship 27 2.8 French memorial scholarship 28 2.9 Trauma and lack of memorialisation 28 2.10 An inclusive approach 29 2.11 A biographic approach to the object 30 2.12 The relationship between a memorial and its surroundings 31 2.13 War memorials: tourism, heritage and conservation 31 2.14 Conclusion 32 Methodology 34 3.1 Introduction 34 3.2 Terminology and definitions 34 3.3 Choice of study areas 34 3.4 Choice of conflict 36 3.5 Research Methods 36 3.5.1 Field Research 36 3.5.2 Documentary research 39 3.5.3 Interviews 40 3.6 Approach and analysis of data 40 3.6.1 War memorial as category of object 41 3.6.2 War memorial tradition 42 3.6.3 Political and psychological functions 42 3.6.4 Continued significance 42 3.6.5 A biographic approach 42 3.6.6 Engagement 43 3.6.7 Three parallel timescales 43 O-P Chronological timescale 43 CT Time passed from conflict 44 MT Time passed from construction of memorial 44 3.7 Conclusion 44 Figure 3.1 Franco-Prussian War Memorial to the Prussian Infantry Regiment n.78 with surrounding graves visible behind the monument (circa 1871) near Flavigny, France . (Photograph by the author, 2012). 35 Figure 3.2 Questions addressed during field research 37 Figure 3.3 National Memorial Arboretum, (2001) Alrewas, Staffordshire, UK. (Photograph by the author, 2012) 38 Figure 3.4 Historic postcard of First World War Memorial (1924), Sedan, France (Postcard collection of the author). 38 Figure 3.5 German Franco-Prussian War Memorial with German symbolism defaced (circa 1871), near Vionville, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012) 39 Figure 3.6 Interviews with individuals associated with memorials 41 Early War Memorialisation Processes: O-P =1870-1914 45 4.2 Initial post-war processes of memorialisation (CT 25 years) 66 4.3.1 Introduction 66 4.3.2 Appropriation of the bravery of the common soldier 66 4.3.3 Memorial Associations 68 4.3.4 The site of conflict: battlefield tourism and battlefield memorials 70 4.3.5 French and German memorials on the eastern border 72 4.3.6 Reflexivity of memorials: memorialisation of earlier conflicts 74 4.3.7 Reflexivity of memorialisation in the lead up to the First World War 76 4.3.8 Reconciliatory memorials in the lead up to the First World War 77 4.4 Conclusion 78 Figure 4.1 Three parallel timescales relating to the understanding of a war memorial at any given point in time: O-P: 1860 – 2014 Chronological timescale CT: Time passed from conflict MT: Time passed from memorial construction 46 Figure 4.2 Soldiers’ National Memorial, National Cemetery (cemetery 1963, monument 1869), Gettysburg, P.A., USA (Photograph by the author, 2012). 49 Figure 4.3 Detail of individual grave markers at Soldiers’ National Memorial, National Cemetery (1864), Gettysburg, P.A., USA. (Photograph by the author, 2012) 49 Figure 4.4 French and German Franco-Prussian War Memorials located opposite each other Cimetière du Faubourg (circa 1873), Mouzon France. (Photograph by the author, 2012) 50 Figure 4.5 Joint French and German Franco Prussian War Memorials, (circa 1873) Villemontry France. (Photograph by the author, 2012) (The memorials have clearly been moved at some point during their history, but given the relationship between other similar 51 Figure 4.6 French and German Franco-Prussian War memorials located opposite each other Cimetière Communal (1873), Mouzon France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 51 Figure 4.7 (Left) French and (Right) German memorials located opposite each other in Mouzon Cemetery (1873), Mouzon, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 52 (begun 1878 and completed 1890) Bazeilles, France. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 53 Figure 4.8 Memorial and ossuary, Cimetière St Charles (original circa 1878, reconstructed circa 1912), Sedan, France. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 53 Figure 4.9 Ossuary, inside which are the visible remains of French victims of the conflict, 53 Figure 4.10 The church of Bazeilles, following the Battle of Bazeilles, 1st September 1870. 54 Figure 4.11 German memorials within the ossuary, Bazeilles, France (Photograph courtesy of John Carman). 54 Figure 4.12 Monument marking the grave of Benjamin Eugene Commander and all French soldiers killed in the municipality of Gorze, (circa 1871) Gorze France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 55 Figure 4.13 Memorial to the 5th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment, (1888) Gettysburg, P.A. USA. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 57 Figure 4.14 Franco-Prussian War memorials in the Cimetiére de Madeline, (Left) Soldiers Memorial , (Right) Memorial to Captain Jean-François Vogel (circa 1872) Amiens, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 58 Figure 4.15 Detail of the Franco-Prussian War memorial demonstrating the numbered marker system, 1870 memorial, Cimetiére de Madeline, Amiens, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 58 Figure 4.16 Royal Warwickshire Regiment Memorial Fountain in its original location in Chamberlain Square (circa 1930) Birmingham, UK. 59 Figure 4.17 Royal Warwickshire Regiment Sudan Campaign memorial fountain, Birmingham Central Library, Birmingham, UK. (Photograph by the author, 2010). 59 Figure 4.18 Original memorial to Lieutenant Joseph Felix Vever, rededicated to the Franco-Prussian War, (original circa 1855, rededication circa 1871) Cimetiére Saint-Simon, Metz , (Postcard collection of the author). 60 Figure 4.19 Details of Franco-Prussian War Memorial, showing the original dedication to Lieutenant Vever who died during the Crimean War, Cimetiére de l’Est, Metz, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 60 Figure 4.20 Details of Franco-Prussian War Memorial, showing the subsequent dedication to those from Metz who died during the Franco-Prussian War Cimetiére de l’Est, Metz, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 61 Figure 4.21 T.L. Dunkin Memorial (circa 1986), Manassas, V.A. USA. (Photograph by the author, 2012) 62 Figure 4.22 Engraving of Bartow Memorial, (1861) Manassas National Battlefield Park, V.A. USA. (Image courtesy of Mahr, repost, Manassas National Battlefield Park. (Copy taken by the author with permission from the Manassas National Battlefield Park).) 62 Figure 4.23 Remains of the Bartow Memorial, Manassas National Battlefield Park, V.A. USA 63 Figure 4.24 Franco-Prussian War memorial (1875) Bazeilles, France. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 64 Figure 4.25 Detail of civilian casualty list, Franco-Prussian War memorial (1875), Bazeilles, France 64 Figure 4.26 Monument aux victims de l’explosion accidentelle de la Cartoucherie (1871), Dunkerque Cemetery (Photograph by the author, 2012). 65 Figure 4.27 The Arsenal Memorial, Congressional Cemetery, (circa 1864), Washington D.C., United States 65 Figure 4.28 Civil War Memorial (1909), Downtown Charlottesville, VA, USA. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 66 Figure 4.29 Confederate Civil War Memorial, Confederate Cemetery (1893), Charlottesville, V.A. USA. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 67 Figure 4.30 Detail of the engraving on Confederate Civil War Memorial, Charlottesville, V.A. USA. 67 Figure 4.31 Franco-Prussian War Memorial, (1897) Sedan, France. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 68 Figure 4.32 Detail of Franco-Prussian War Memorial relief panels, Sedan, France. Showing ‘ Maison de la dernière cartouche’ at Bazeilles (above) and ‘Charge des Chasseurs d’Afrique’ at Floing (below). (Photographs by the author, 2011). 69 Figure 4.33 Memorial on the Rotunda, (1906) University of Virginia, Charlottesville, V.A. United States 70 Figure 4.34 Clark’s Battery Memorial, Sickles Avenue, (1888) Gettysburg, P.A. National Battlefield Park, United States. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 71 Figure 4.35 17th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment Monument, (1889) DeTrobriand Avenue, The Wheatfield, Gettysburg P.A. United States (Photograph by 71 the author, 2012). 71 Figure 4.36 Franco-Prussian War memorial commemorating the spot where Kaiser Wilhelm rested, Rezonville, 72 Figure 4.37 Scene of Kaiser Wilhelm resting on a ladder from the back of the monumental bench 73 Figure 4.38 German memorial, (circa 1900) Vionville, France (at the time part of the regions annexed by Germany) (Postcard collection of the author). 74 Figure 4.39 Franco-Prussian War memorial to the 5th Division Prussian Infantry (circa 1900), near Rezonville, France (Postcard collection of the author). 74 Figure 4.40 Memorial to historic events, (1873) Cassel, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 75 Figure 4.41 Napoleonic War Memorial erected by the Souvenir Français (est1887) Place du Chateau, Gorze, France (annexed by Germany) (Photograph by the author, 2011). 75 Figure 4.42 Napoleonic War Memorial erected by the Souvenir Français (circa 1887) Place du Chateau, Gorze, France (annexed by Germany) (Photograph by the author, 2011). 76 Figure 4.43 Bataille de Bouvines Memorial, Bouvines (Nord) Colone, (1914) (Postcard collection 77 Figure 4.44 Norman Cross Memorial (photograph taken 2012, memorial not in original location) (Photograph by the author, 2012). 77 of the author). 77 Figure 5.1 Three parallel timescales relating to the understanding of a war memorial at any given point in time: O-P: 1914-1939 Chronological timescale CT: Time passed from conflict MT: Time passed from memorial construction A: Processes of engagement wit 80 Post-First World War Memorialisation Processes: O-P = 1914-1939 80 5.1 Introduction 80 O-P = War memorial tradition 1914-1939 80 CT = Time passed from conflict 80 MT = Time passed from memorial construction 80 (CT 25 years) 107 5.3.1 Introduction 107 5.3.2 Development of conflict narratives: Metz’s First World War Memorial 108 5.3.3 Reflexivity of memorial process in the lead up to the Second World War: Guynemer’s memorial 109 5.3.4 Continued memorialisation of the Civil War in the United States 110 5.3.5 Reflexivity of memorialisation; memorials to marginalised groups 110 5.3.6 Reconciliatory memorials in the lead up to the Second World War 111 5.3 Second phase processes of memorialisation 107 5.4 Conclusion 112 Figure 5.3 First World War memorial, in its parkland location (circa 1919) Kinver, Staffordshire. 82 Figure 5.4 Common Wealth War Graves, Arras Cemetery, France (Photograph by the author, 2012) 83 Figure 5.5 (Left) First World War Memorial, (circa 1918) Tanny, France and (Right) First World War (circa 1918) Memorial, Bellicourt, France, both with standardised poilus figure . (Photographs by the author, 2012). 84 Figure 5.6 First World War memorial (1924), Sedan, France (Photograph by the author, 2011). For historic postcard of the memorials see Figure 3.3. 85 Figure 5.7 First World War Memorial (1920), Gettysburg, P.A. United States. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 85 Figure 5.9 Barrow-upon-Soar war memorial, (1921) provided a permanent memorial to individuals listed on the temporary memorial (Photograph by the author, 2014). 86 Figure 5.10 First World War Memorial Sopwell Lane St Albans (1920-21). One of ten memorials erected in St Albans Abbely Parish which commemorates the dead of individual streets. (Image courtesy of John Carman). 87 Figure 5.11 Victory parade through the Arc de Triomphe depicting temporary cenotaph (bottom right), Paris, France 14th July 1919 (Postcard collection of the author). 88 Figure 5.12 First World War Memorial listing the names of the dead, (circa 1918) Comines, France. 89 Figure 5.13 First World War Memorial surrounded by individual memorial plaques, Comines, France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 90 Figure 5.14 Individual plaques First World War memorial, Comines, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 91 Figure 5.15 Pennsylvania State Memorial (1910), Gettysburg, P.A., United States (Photograph by the author, 2012). 92 Figure 5.16 War Memorial 1214-1914, (1934) St Peter’s Church, Bouvines, France 93 Figure 5.17 Original French First World War Memorial (1924), Metz (Postcard collection of the author). 94 Figure 5.19 1870 Ossuary at Sedan, surrounded by First World War Graves. Cimetière St, Charles, Sedan, France. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 95 Figure 5.20 First World War Memorial Window which includes earlier casualties from the Boer War St Mary’s Roman Catholic Church, Brewood, Staffordshire (Photograph courtesy of Paul Collins). 96 Figure 5.21 First World War Memorial Plaque which includes earlier casualties from the Boer War St Mary’s Roman Catholic Church, Brewood, Staffordshire (Photograph courtesy of Paul Collins). 96 Figure 5.23 Lieutenant James Gordon Keay, First World War Memorial, St Augustine of Hippo Church, Edgbaston, 97 United Kingdom. (Photograph by the author, 2009). 97 Figure 5.24 Kaiser Wilhelm memorial bench Franco-Prussian War, Rezonville, France. (For original see Figure 4.36. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 98 Figure 5.25 French memorial, built onto German base Vionville (for original see Figure 4.40, photograph by the author, 2012). 99 Figure 5.26 French postcard depicting the destruction of the equestrian statue of Kaiser Wilhelm, 18 November, 1918, Metz, France (Postcard collection of the author). 99 Figure 5.27 Temporary statue of a French poilu erected on the base of the former Kaiser Wilhelm statue. 100 Figure 5.28 Postcard depicting the original statue of Kaiser Wilhelm on the left and the First World War memorial erected in its place on the right 100 (Below) Detail of beheaded German eagle 101 Figure 5.29 (Above) German Franco-Prussian War memorial near Vionville with German symbolism defaced 101 Figure 5.30 (Above) German Franco-Prussian War memorial in its original condition and (Below) in its present (2012), Rezonville, France. (Postcard collection of author, photograph by the author, 2012). 102 Figure 5.31 (Left) German Franco-Prussian War memorial original condition and (Right) in its present condition (2011), Gravelotte, France. (Postcard collection of author, Photograph by the author, 2011). 103 Figure 5.32 (Above) German Franco- Prussian War memorial in its original condition and (Below) in its present condition (2012), Vionville, France. (Postcard collection of author, photograph by the author, 2012). 104 Figure 5.33 ‘Heldenfriedhof’ monument , German First World War Memorial circa 1915, Cimetière Saint Charles, Sedan, France (Postcard collection of the author). 105 Figure 5.34 German First World War Memorial, Cimetière Nord, Comines, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 105 Figure 5.35 Heldenfriedhof’ monument , German First World War Memorial, 2012 Cimetière Saint Charles, Sedan, France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 106 Figure 5.36 The destroyed village of Fleury devant Douaumont preserved as a memorial to the conflict. 106 Figure 5.37 First World War memorial in the destroyed village of Vaux (1924),Vaux France. 107 Figure 5.38 First World War memorial in the destroyed village of Fleury (circa 1920) near Douaumont, France. 107 Figure 5.39 First World War Memorial, constructed next to original monument, Metz, France (1935) 108 Figure 5.40 The temporary Guynemer monument (1934), Dunkerque on the front cover of the L’Illustation newspaper, August 1934. (Newspaper cover, 109 Figure 5.41 Completed Memorial to Guynemer, (1938) Dunkerque, France, (Postcard collection of the author). 109 collection of the author). 109 Figure 5.42 Memorial to Francis Stebbings Bartow (1936), Manassas, V.A. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 110 Figure 5.43 ‘Nuns of the Battlefield’ memorial, Washington D.C (1925) (Photograph by the author 2012) 111 Figure 5.44 Eternal Light Peace Memorial, (1938), Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. United States. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 112 Figure 6.1 Three parallel timescales relating to the understanding of a war memorial at any given point in time: O-P: 1939 –2014 Chronological timescale, CT: Time passed from conflict, MT: Time passed from memorial construction, A: Processes of engagement 113 Post-Second World War Memorialisation: O-P = 1939- 2014 113 6.2 Post Second-World War processes of memorial construction 114 6.2.1 Second World War memorials (CT 25 years) 134 6.3.1 Introduction 134 6.3.2 Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II, Washington, D.C. 135 6.3.3 Bomber Command Memorial 137 6.3.4 Continued engagement with a memorial (MT> 50 years) 138 6.3.4.1 Visits to memorials 138 6.3.4.2 The names of the dead 140 6.3.4.3 New ways of engaging with memorials 141 6.3.5 New meanings for memorials 142 6.3.5.1 Memorials as protest 142 6.3.5.2 Memorials signifying community 143 6.3.6 Relocation of memorials 143 6.3.6.1 Relocating ‘orphaned’ memorials 144 6.3.6.2 Relocating battlefield memorials 146 6.3.7 Memorials as heritage 146 6.3.7.1 Heritage trails in eastern France 147 6.3.7.2 Deliberate lack of engagement; attempts at forgetting 151 6.3 Second phase processes of memorialisation 134 6.4 Conclusion 153 Figure 6.2 First World War Memorial, Codsall, Staffordshire, United Kingdom. with addition of Second World War memorial plaques. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 114 Figure 6.3 First World War Memorial, Kinver Staffordshire, United Kingdom with Second World War names added to the obelisk, (Photograph by the author, 2012). 114 Figure 6.4 First (Above) World War Memorial Douzy, France, with detail of addition of Second World War casualties to base (Below). (Photograph by the author, 2012). 115 Figure 6.5 First World War Memorial with addition of Second World War memorial plaques. Bazeilles, France. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 116 Figure 6.6 French War Memorial, Sablon, (1948) near Metz, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 117 Figure 6.7 War Memorial in its present form, Metz, France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 118 Figure.6.8 First World War Memorial in its present position following retrieval from the basement and restoration St Chads, Birmingham, UK 118 Figure 6.10 Fragment of original Guynemer Memorial incorporated into the 1989 monument, Dunkerque, France. 120 Figure 6.9 Guynemer Memorial, outside the Musée de la Bataille de Dunkerque et de l’opération Dynamo (1989), Dunkerque, France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 120 Figure 6.11 (Left) Guynemer memorial, 1989 outside the Musée de la Bataille de Dunkerque et de l’opération Dynamo . (Right) Detail of the Guynemer memorial 1989, depicting the original memorial. Dunkerque, France. 121 Figure 6.12 New First World War Memorial, located in the centre of the village (circa 2010) Kinver, Staffordshire (Photograph by the author, 2012). 121 Figure 6.13 War Memorial Kinver, Staffordshire. Original First World War Memorial with addition of gates to commemorate the centenary 1914-2014 (Photograph by the author, 2014). 122 Figure 6.14 War Memorial (1995) in Cathedral grounds, Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom. 124 Figure 6.15 First World War Memorial, Pearl Insurance, Peterborough. (Photograph of image exhibited at the unveiling of the memorial, taken by the author, 25th June 2012). 124 Figure 6.16 New War Memorial on the high street (2012), Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom 125 Figure 6.17 Peterborough War Memorial Fund, donors certificate. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 125 Figure 6.18 Peterborough memorial dedication ceremony, 25th June, 2012. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 126 Figure 6.19 The African American Civil War Memorial, (1997), Washington, D.C. (Photograph courtesy of 128 Hari Jones, 2012). 128 Figure 6.21 Women in Military Service for America Memorial, (1992), Arlington Cemetery, Washington, D.C. 129 Figure 6.22 The Railway Industry Memorial, UK National Memorial Arboretum (2012), Alrewas, Staffordshire. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 131 Figure 6.23 Australian Battle of Fromelles Memorial (1998), Fromelles France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 133 Figure 6.24 Australian Memorial to the Battle of Fromelles, Somme, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 134 Figure 6.25 Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II (2000), Washington, D.C. 135 Figure 6.26 Mike Masaoka quote on the Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II. 136 Figure 6.27 Crane sculpture by Nina Akamu. The Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism during World War II, Washington, D.C. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 137 Figure 6.28 Poppy cross left at Commonwealth 139 Figure 6.29 Photographs left at Commonwealth 139 War Graves Cemetery in Arras, France. 139 War Graves in Arras Cemetery, France. 139 Figure 6.30 First World War memorial plaques, Preston Museum and Art Gallery, Preston, UK 140 Figure 6.31 First World War Memorial, Preston, UK. Light installation by Andy McKeown on Preston Cenotaph, specially commissioned by the Preston Remembers project with the support of the Arts Council 23rd November 2013 (Photograph by the author, 2013). 142 Figure 6.32 First World War Memorial, Preston, UK. Reverse illuminated with images of the deceased. Light installation by Andy McKeown on Preston Cenotaph, specially commissioned by the Preston Remembers project with the support of the Arts Council 23rd N 142 Figure 6.33 Stourbridge First World War Memorial (1923) in its current location in Mary Stevens Park 144 Figure 6.34 ‘Orphaned’ monuments, National Memorial Arboretum, London and Lancashire Insurance Company First World War Memorial (left), Phoenix Staff First World War Memorial (right) Alwreas, Staffordshire, United Kingdom (Photograph by the author, 2011). 145 Figure 6.35 ‘Orphaned’ memorial plaques at the National Memorial Arboretum. Alrewas, Staffordshire, United Kingdom. (Photograph by the author, 2011). 145 Figure 6.36 Battlefield Memorial in the Ulster Memorial Tower. ‘In loving memory of LT. Wright Killed near this spot never forgottin [sic]’ (Photograph by the author, 2012). 146 Figure 6.37 Photographs of memorial in its original location and of LT. Wright placed next to the memorial.(Photograph by the author, 2012). 147 Figure 6.38 Memorial to General Margueritte in the Sedanese region of France. This memorial now forms part of a heritage memorial trail which documents the progression of the Battle of Sedan, 1870. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 149 Figure 6.39 Information board outside the tourist information centre in Sedan, which describes the town in terms of its unfair victimhood (Photograph by the author, 2012). 149 Figure 6.40 German memorial near the village of Floing, with interpretation board. (Photograph by the author, 2012).70 150 Figure 6.41 The Memorial to Kaiser Wilhelm in its current state, Rezonville, France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 151 Figure 6.42 The memorial as it is presented hidden behind a low hedge, Rezonville, France (Photograph by the author, 2012). 152 Figure 6.43 Memorial plaque in remembrance of those who were imprisoned and died at the fort during the First World War (Photograph by the author, 2012). 153 Figure 6.44 Heldenfriedhof First World War Memorial, Cimetière Saint Charles, Sedan, France. 154 Figure 6.45 (Left) Heldenfriedhof First World War Memorial, interior and (Right) exterior, illustrating level of decay. Cimetière Saint Charles, Sedan, France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 155 Discussion 156 7.1 Introduction 156 7.2 Part One: Holistic approach: an examination of war memorial processes 156 7.2.1 Examination of the longitudinal approach 156 7.2.1.1 Time frame 1 O-P: the chronological development of the war memorial tradition 1860-2014 157 7.2.1.2 Time frame 2 CT: the time that has passed from the conflict itself 160 Continued processes of memorialisation after autobiographical memory CT>AM 161 Collective Memory 162 Historical Memory 163 7.2.1.3 Time frame 3 MT: The biography of the memorial 164 7.2.2 Implications of the holistic approach 166 7.2.2.1 Challenging the assumption that memorialisation begins after the First World War 166 7.2.2.2 Challenging assumption that memorials are only important to those with autobiographical memories of the events they commemorate 168 7.2.2.3 Overcoming the dichotomy between political and person approaches 169 7.3 Part Two: Themes emerging from the longitudinal approach 169 7.3.1 Types of monument and their uses 169 7.3.1.1 Memorials to defeat 170 7.3.1.2 Memorials that mark the location of an historical event 170 7.3.1.3 Memorials that unite 170 7.3.1.4 Memorials that make a geographical claim 172 7.3.1.5 Memorials to marginalised individuals/groups 173 7.3.1.6 The Suitability of the memorial form 173 7.3.1.7 Memorials to promote or create tourism 174 7.3.2 Naming/ not naming- adding names 174 7.3.2.1 Petitions to add names after many years 175 Figure 7.1 The three parallel timescales relating to the understanding of a war memorial at any given point in time: O-P: 1860 – 2014 Chronological timescale, CT:Time passed from conflict, MT:Time passed from memorial construction 157 Figure 7.2 The chronological development of the war memorial tradition: O-P:1860 – 2014 Chronological timescale/ memorial tradition, CT:Time passed from conflict, MT:Time passed from memorial construction, x1 :Point during the memorial tradition in which 158 Figure 7.3 (Left) Detail of Franco-Prussian War Memorial, Sedan, France. (Right) Confederate War Memorial, Charlottesville Virginia (Photographs by the author, 2012). 159 Figure 7.4 Vietnam Veterans Memorial (1982), Maya Lin Washington, D.C. United States (Photograph by the author, 2012). 160 Figure 7.5 Diagram illustrating the importance of the time that has passed from the conflict itself: O-P: 1860 – 2014 Chronological timescale, CT: Time passed from conflict, MT: Time passed from memorial construction, AM: Period of autobiographical memor 161 Figure 7.6 (Left) War Memorial, Kinver, Staffordshire. New First World War Memorial, located in the centre of the village (Photograph by the author, 2012). (Right) The African American Civil War Memorial, 1997, Washington, D.C. (Photograph courtesy of Ha 162 Figure 7.7 (Left) Battle of Bouvines Memorial 1914, Bouvines, France (Nord) Colone. (Middle) Norman Cross Memorial, 1914 near Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom. (Right) Napoleonic Memorial (circa 1887) Gorze, France. 163 Figure 7.8 The biography of a memorial: CT: Time passed from conflict, MT: Time passed from memorial construction, IT: Idea to construct a memorial is first conceived, DT: Destruction of the memorial 165 Figure 7.9 (Above) First World War Memorials, Metz, France original memorial, (Below) Second First World War memorial (contemporary photograph, original memorial contained reliefs and inscriptions, see 5.3.2) (Postcard collection of the author, photgraph 167 Figure 7.10 (Above) Original First World War memorial in parkland location. (Below) Second First World War memorial in village location, Kinver, Staffordshire, UK. 168 Figure 7.11 Position marker on the Battlefield of Manassas (Position 7th C.A. Regt Captured Pickett’S Battery July 21 1861) (Photograph by the author, 2012). 171 Figure 7.12 French and German Franco-Prussian War memorial located opposite each other Cimetière du Faubourg, Mouzon France. (Photograph by the author, 2012). 172 Figure 7.13 Napoleonic War Memorial erected by the Souvenir Français on the site of a hospital used by the French military during the Napoleonic War (Photograph by the author, 2012). 173 Figure 7.14