Semiconductor Materials: An Introduction to Basic Principles (Microdevices)

The main objective of this book is to provide an introductory perspective of the basic principles of semiconductors, being an integrated overview of the basic properties, applications, and characterization of semiconductors in a single volume. This book is suitable for both undergraduate and graduate students, and for researchers, working in a wide variety of fields in physical and engineering sciences, who require an introductory and concise description of the field of semiconductors. CONTENTS......Page 8 CHAPTER 1. Introduction......Page 12 2.1. Introduction......Page 16 2.2. Interatomic Bonding......Page 17 2.3. Crystal Structure......Page 20 2.4. Defects in Solids......Page 32 2.5. Lattice Vibrations......Page 37 2.6. Summary......Page 41 Problems......Page 43 3.1. Introduction......Page 44 3.2.1. The Wave–Particle Duality......Page 45 3.2.3. The Schrödinger Wave Equation......Page 46 3.3.1. Free Electrons......Page 48 3.3.2. Bound Electron in an Infinitely Deep Potential Well......Page 49 3.3.3. Bound Electron in a Finite Potential Well......Page 50 3.3.4. Electron Tunneling through a Finite Potential Barrier......Page 51 3.3.5. The Kronig–Penney Model (Electron in a Periodic Crystal Potential)......Page 53 3.4. Energy Bands in Crystals......Page 56 3.5. Brillouin Zones and Examples of the Energy Band Structure for Semiconductors......Page 60 3.6. The Effective Mass......Page 63 3.7. Classification of Solids According to the Band Theory......Page 66 3.8. Summary......Page 68 Problems......Page 69 4.2. Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors......Page 70 4.3. The Fermi–Dirac Distribution Function and the Density of States......Page 72 4.4.1. Intrinsic Semiconductors......Page 77 4.4.2. Extrinsic Semiconductors......Page 80 4.5. Donors and Acceptors in Semiconductors......Page 81 4.6. Nonequilibrium Properties of Carriers......Page 91 4.7.1. Optical Absorption......Page 92 4.8. Recombination Processes......Page 98 4.8.1. Radiative Transitions......Page 99 4.8.2. Nonradiative Recombination Mechanisms......Page 103 4.8.3. Recombination Rate......Page 105 4.8.4. Luminescence Centers......Page 107 4.9 Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission......Page 109 4.10 Effects of External Perturbations on Semiconductor Properties......Page 111 4.11.1. Poisson’s Equation......Page 113 4.11.3. Carrier Transport Equations......Page 114 Problems......Page 115 5.2.1. The p–n Junction......Page 118 5.2.2. Schottky Barrier......Page 127 5.2.3. Heterojunctions......Page 128 5.3.1. Bipolar Junction Transistors......Page 131 5.3.2. Field Effect Transistors......Page 133 5.4 Integrated Circuits......Page 135 5.5.1. Light Emitting Devices......Page 136 5.5.2. Light Detecting Devices......Page 140 5.6 Summary......Page 144 6.1. Introduction (Semiconductor Growth and Processing)......Page 146 6.2. Elemental Semiconductors......Page 153 6.3.1. III–V Compounds......Page 155 6.3.2. II–VI Compounds......Page 157 6.3.4. I–III–VI[sub(2)] (Chalcopyrite) Compounds......Page 158 6.4. Narrow Energy-Gap Semiconductors......Page 159 6.5. Wide Energy-Gap Semiconductors......Page 160 6.6. Oxide Semiconductors......Page 163 6.7. Magnetic Semiconductors......Page 164 6.9. Amorphous Semiconductors......Page 165 6.10. Organic Semiconductors......Page 168 6.11. Low-dimensional Semiconductors......Page 169 6.12. Choices of Semiconductors for Specific Applications......Page 178 6.13. Summary......Page 179 Problems......Page 181 7.1. Introduction......Page 182 7.2.1. Resistivity (Conductivity) and the Hall Effect......Page 186 7.2.2. Capacitance–Voltage Measurements......Page 189 7.2.3. Photoconductivity......Page 191 7.3. Optical Characterization Methods......Page 193 7.3.1. Optical Absorption......Page 194 7.3.2. Photoluminescence......Page 195 7.3.3. Raman Spectroscopy......Page 198 7.3.4. Ellipsometry......Page 199 7.4. Microscopy Techniques......Page 200 7.4.1. Optical Microscopy......Page 201 7.4.2. Electron Beam Techniques......Page 202 7.4.3. Scanning Probe Microscopy......Page 209 7.5.1. X-ray Diffraction......Page 214 7.5.2. Electron Diffraction......Page 215 7.6. Surface Analysis Methods......Page 216 7.6.1. Auger Electron Spectroscopy......Page 217 7.6.2. Photoelectron Spectroscopy......Page 218 7.6.3. Ion-Beam Techniques......Page 219 7.6.4. Comparison of Surface Analytical Techniques......Page 224 Problems......Page 226 APPENDICES......Page 228 BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 230 C......Page 234 E......Page 235 I......Page 236 N......Page 237 S......Page 238 Z......Page 239 The technological progress is closely related to the developments of various materials and tools made of those materials. Even the different ages have been defined in relation to the materials used. Some of the major attributes of the present-day age (i.e., the electronic materials’ age) are such common tools as computers and fiber-optic telecommunication systems, in which semiconductor materials provide vital components for various mic- electronic and optoelectronic devices in applications such as computing, memory storage, and communication. The field of semiconductors encompasses a variety of disciplines. This book is not intended to provide a comprehensive description of a wide range of semiconductor properties or of a continually increasing number of the semiconductor device applications. Rather, the main purpose of this book is to provide an introductory perspective on the basic principles of semiconductor materials and their applications that are described in a relatively concise format in a single volume. Thus, this book should especially be suitable as an introductory text for a single course on semiconductor materials that may be taken by both undergraduate and graduate engineering students. This book should also be useful, as a concise reference on semiconductor materials, for researchers working in a wide variety of fields in physical and engineering sciences. During the recent decades, advances in semiconductor materials resulted in the development of a wide range of electronic and optoelectronic devices that affected many aspects of the technological society.