Self-Organization and Mobility Deprivation of Poor Workers in Hong Kong and Singapore (Quality of Life in Asia, 18)

This book focuses on the influence of socio-economic and land-use policies on the commuting problems and quality of life of the poor in Singapore and Hong Kong. It considers the influence of self-organisation: how the mobility of an individual is constituted by structures such as transport systems or socio-economic structural factors, as well as influenced by individual decisions. Where most transport studies focus on the influence of factors such as income inequality, the gender gap, and the built environment, this book fills a gap in paying particular attention to the influence of individual decisions on commuting. Given the prevalence of the former in research, government decision-makers are often constrained by these approaches and fail to understand the commuting problems of the poor. This book argues that the self-organisation approach provides some ideas that are outside the common conceptual framework in conventional transport planning and looks to improve mobility of lower-income commuters. Relevant to social science researchers working in areas such as urban planning and transport, mobility deprivation, and poverty, this book breaks new ground in quality of life studies in the Singapore and Hong Kong contexts. Acknowledgements Contents List of Figures 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Accessibility and Activity Space 1.3 Self-organization Approach 1.3.1 Self-organization is Operationalized by Using Structuration Theory 1.3.2 Self-organization and Government Policy 1.4 Self-organization Approach Helps to Explain the Cause and Effect of Trip Flows 1.5 Social Justice and Government Policies 1.6 Objectives of the Book 1.7 Research Questions of This Study 1.8 Main Hypotheses of This Book 1.8.1 Elaboration of the First Hypothesis 1.8.2 Elaboration of the Second Hypothesis 1.9 Conclusion References 2 Influence of Government Policies and Individual Decisions on the Commuting of Poor Workers in Hong Kong 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Economic Restructuring and Commuting Problems in Hong Kong 2.2.1 Economic Restructuring and the Increase in the Low-Income Working Population 2.2.2 Flexible Employment Practices and Job Polarization in Economic Restructuring 2.3 Mobility Gap Between High-Income and Low-Income Workers 2.4 High Land Price Policy and Commuting Problems of the Poor 2.4.1 The Government and Property Developers Restrict Land Supply to Boost Land Prices 2.5 Rail-Plus-Property Model and Transit-Oriented Development Policy 2.6 The Concentration of Poverty in Deprived Urban Neighbourhoods 2.7 The Influx of New Immigrants from Mainland China 2.8 Poverty in Hong Kong and Gender Gaps 2.9 Study: Based on Data from the 2011 Hong Kong Travel Characteristics Survey 2.9.1 Study Area 2.9.2 Gender Gap in Commuting 2.9.3 Mobility Deprivation of the Poor in Urban Areas and New Towns 2.9.4 Investigation of Trip Origin–Destination of Low-Income Workers Indicating Social and Spatial Segregation 2.9.5 Industry Sector Segregation by Gender of Low-Income Workers 2.9.6 Travel Characteristics of Low-Income Men 2.9.7 Male Workers Account for a High Share of Older Workers 2.9.8 Mode Choice of the Low-Income Respondents 2.9.9 Evaluating the Government Policies that Cause Commuting Problems of the Poor in Hong Kong 2.9.10 Conclusion References 3 Impacts of Government Policies and Individual Decisions on the Commuting of Poor Workers in Singapore 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Globalization Produces Job Polarization and Widens Labour Market Inequality 3.3 Gender Differences in Workforce Participation Rate and Commuting Problems 3.4 Importation of Foreign Workers Contributes to Poverty and Commuting Problems 3.5 The Inadequacy of the CPF Scheme to Finance the Retirement of Many Older Workers 3.6 Master and Concept Plans 3.7 Some New Towns Partially Achieved Self-containment 3.8 Suburbanization of Poverty 3.9 The Study: Based on Data from the 2020 Singapore Population Census 3.9.1 The Study Area 3.9.2 The Transformation from a Monocentric to Polycentric Structure 3.9.3 Jobs/Employed Resident Ratio and Commuting Problems in Poor New Towns 3.9.4 Social and Spatial Segregation Between High- and Low-Income Workers 3.9.5 Workers’ Occupation and Mobility 3.9.6 Gender Gap in Transport Mobility 3.10 Evaluating the Policies that Cause Commuting Problems of the Poor in Singapore 3.11 Conclusion References 4 Neighbourhood Effects Influence the Commuting of the Poor in Deprived Urban Neighbourhoods of Hong Kong and Singapore 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Segregation, Social and Spatial Differentiation 4.3 The Poverty Stigma Effect and Commuting Problems 4.4 Poverty in Chinatown and Little India, Singapore 4.4.1 Effect of Poverty Stigma on the Commuting of the Poor in Chinatown and Little India 4.5 Poverty in Shamshuipo and Mong Kok, Hong Kong 4.5.1 Poverty Stigma Effect and Experiences of the Poor Residents in Shamshuipo 4.6 Social Disorganization Influences Commuting in Shamshuipo and Mong Kok, Hong Kong 4.7 Social Disorganization Influences Commuting in Chinatown and Little India, Singapore 4.8 Ethnic Enclaves in Singapore 4.9 Investigating the Travel Behaviour and Segregation of Residents in Chinatown and Little India, Singapore 4.9.1 Residents in Chinatown and Little India in Singapore Travel Short Times to Work 4.9.2 Residents in Chinatown and Little India in Singapore Use Slow Transport Modes to Get to Work 4.9.3 Investigating the Travel Behaviour and Segregation of Residents in Shamshuipo and Mong Kok, Hong Kong 4.9.4 Residents in Shamshuipo and Mong Kok in Hong Kong Commute Short Distances to Work 4.9.5 Residents in Shamshuipo and Mong Kok in Hong Kong Use Public Transport Modes to Work 4.9.6 Research Evidence 4.10 Poverty Stigma Effect and Commuting Problems of the Residents 4.11 Social Disorganization and Commuting Problems of the Residents 4.11.1 Evaluating the Policies that Cause Neighbourhood Effects in Singapore and Hong Kong 4.11.2 Conclusion References 5 Impacts of the Suburbanization Policy on the Spatial Mismatch Commuting of Workers in Hong Kong and Singapore 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Tuen Mun New Town, Hong Kong 5.2.1 Failure to Achieve Self-containment in Tuen Mun 5.2.2 Job-Housing Spatial Mismatch Problems in Tuen Mun 5.2.3 Travel Time Distribution of Working Residents in Tuen Mun 5.2.4 Public Transport System that Connects Tuen Mun and Urban Areas 5.2.5 The Mode Choice of the Working Residents in Tuen Mun 5.2.6 Commuting Problems of Poor Workers in Tuen Mun 5.2.7 Low-Income Workers by Industry Sector in Tuen Mun 5.3 Woodlands New Town, Singapore 5.3.1 Commercial Firms Do not Follow the Population to Relocate to New Towns 5.3.2 Urban Agglomeration and Clustering of Service Jobs in the Central Region 5.3.3 Affordability of the Poor for Public Transport Fares in Woodlands, Singapore 5.3.4 Route Tests 5.3.5 Travel Time of Working Residents in Woodlands 5.3.6 Mode Choice of the Working Residents in Woodlands 5.4 Evaluating Suburbanization Policies 5.5 Conclusion References 6 Comparing Policies Between Hong Kong and Singapore with a Focus on the Commuting of the Poor 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Comparing the Influence of Public Housing Policy on the Commuting of the Poor in Singapore and Hong Kong 6.2.1 Public Housing in Singapore 6.2.2 Influence of Singapore Public Housing Policy on the Commuting of the Poor 6.2.3 Public Housing in Hong Kong 6.2.4 Hong Kong Public Housing Policy Facilitates High Land Price Policy 6.2.5 Limiting the Supply of Public Rental Housing 6.2.6 Hong Kong Public Housing Policy Influences the Commuting of the Poor 6.2.7 Evaluating Public Housing and Social Welfare Policies 6.3 Comparing the Impacts of Land Value Capture Policy on the Commuting of the Poor in Singapore and Hong Kong 6.3.1 Influence of Land Value Capture Policy on the Commuting of the Poor in Hong Kong 6.3.2 High Land Price Policy in Hong Kong 6.3.3 Land Value Capture Policy Influences the Commuting of the Poor in Singapore 6.3.4 Land Acquisition and Land Sales Policies in Singapore 6.3.5 Impacts of LVC on the Commuting of the Poor in Hong Kong and Singapore 6.3.6 Evaluating the LVC, High Land Price, and Land Acquisition Policies that Cause Commuting Problems 6.4 Comparing the Impacts of Suburbanization Policies on the Commuting of Workers in Hong Kong and Singapore 6.4.1 Singapore Suburbanization Policy 6.4.2 Suburbanization Policies of the Two Cities Produce Spatial Mismatch 6.4.3 Evaluating Suburbanization Policies 6.5 Conclusion References