Seeing the light : optics in nature, photography, color, vision, and holography including a new chapter on digital photography

Title PREFACE OVERVIEW CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF LIGHT 1.1 WHAT IS LIGHT? A. Which way does light go? B. The speed of light C. What carries the light? D. What is it that travels? 1.2 WAVES AND THEIR PROPERTIES A. Electromagnetic waves B. Resonance TRY IT for Section 1.2B. Resonance in a Simple Pendulum 1.3 NUMBERS ASSOCIATED WITH PERIODIC WAVES A. Wavelength, frequency, and velocity B. More parameters needed to specify a wave C. Seeing the properties of light waves 1.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION A. The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation B. How to make electromagnetic radiation C. Light sources D. Visible electromagnetic radiation SUMMARY PROBLEMS FOCUS ON . . . . Light, Life, and the Atmosphere CHAPTER 2 PRINCIPLES OF GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 SHADOWS A. Eclipses B. Pinhole camera TRY IT for Section 2.2B. Pinhole Cameras, Cheap and Expensive 2.3 REFLECTION *A. Radar B. Metals C. The ionosphere D. Mirrors E. Half-silvered mirrors 2.4 REFLECTION AT OBLIQUE INCIDENCE TRY IT for Section 2.4. Magic with Mirrors *A. Sub suns and sun pillars B. Diffuse reflection C. Multiple reflections TRY IT for Section 2 4C. Fun with Two Small Mirrors 2.5 REFRACTION A. Total internal reflection *B. Fiber optics TRY IT for Section 2.5B. Light Trapped in Glass by Total Internal Reflection *C. Mirages and atmospheric distortion 2.6 DISPERSION *A. Diamonds B. Rainbows *C. Sun dogs, 22° halos, and more SUMMARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 3 MIRRORS AND LENSES 3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 VIRTUAL IMAGES A. Locating the image TRY IT for Section 3.2A. Locating the Virtual Image *B. Kaleidoscopes 3.3 SPHERICAL MIRRORS A. Convex mirrors B. Locating the image by ray tracing *C. Deformations in convex mirrors and anamorphic art First TRY IT for Section 3.3C. Cylindrical Anamorphic Drawing Second TRY IT for Section 3.3C. Conical Anamorphic Photograph D. Concave mirrors 3.4 SPHERICAL LENSES A. Converging and diverging lenses First TRY IT for Section 3.4A. Focusing of Parallel Rays Second TRY IT for Section 3.4A. The Focusing Ability of a Lens B. Dew heiligenschein and another type of retroreflector TRY IT for Section 3.4B. Focal Point of a Water Drop C. Ray tracing for thin lenses *D. Fresnel lenses E. Compound lenses TRY IT for Section 3.4E. Measuring Your Eyeglass Prescription 3.5 ABERRATIONS A. Chromatic aberrations B. Spherical aberrations of lenses C. Spherical aberrations of mirrors TRY IT for Sections 3.5B and C. Spherical Aberration in Lenses and Mirrors *D. Off-axis aberrations TRY IT for Section 3.5D. Aberrations of a Magnifying Glass SUMMARY PROBLEMS FOCUS ON . . . . Solar Power CHAPTER 4 THE CAMERA AND PHOTOGRAPHY 4.1 INTRODUCTION A. The essential parts of a camera 4.2 FOCUSING THE IMAGE A. Depth of focus, depth of field B. The view camera C. The single-lens reflex D. The rangefinder 4.3 EFFECTS OF FOCAL LENGTH A. Telephoto and wide-angle lenses B. Perspective TRY IT for Section 4.3B. Perspective of Wide-Angle, Normal, and Telephoto Lenses *4.4 CAMERA LENSES A. Aberrations of camera lenses B. Compound lenses First TRY IT for Section 4.4B. Measure the Focal Length of Your Camera Lens Second TRY IT for Section 4.4B. Anamorphic Pinhole Camera C. Zoom lenses D. Close-up and converter lenses 4.5 DEVICES TO CONTROL LIGHT A. The shutter TRY IT for Section 4.5A. Measure Your Shutter’s Exposure Time B. Stops TRY IT for Section 4.5B. Measure the f-Number of Your Camera Lens C. The f-number sequence D. Effect of f-number on picture quality 4.6 EXPOSURE 4.7 FILM A. Principles *B. Daguerreotypes C. Modern film D. Chemical development TRY IT for Section 4.7D. Photography Without Development *E. Other development techniques F. Film sensitivity: H & D curve G. Film sensitivity: speed, contrast, and latitude SUMMARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 5 THE HUMAN EYE AND VISION— I: PRODUCING THE IMAGE 5.1 INTRODUCTION 5.2 EYE AND CAMERA A. Focusing and accommodation First TRY IT for Section 5.2A. The Orientation of the Retinal Image Second TRY IT for Section 5.2A. Accommodation *B. Aberrations C. The iris TRY IT for Section 5.2C. The Iris 5.3 THE RETINA TRY IT for Section 5.3. Seeing Blood Vessels, Capillaries, and Cells in the Retina A. The rods and cones *B. The mechanisms of light absorption C. Processing time D. Sensitivity TRY IT for Section 5.3D. Foveal Versus Peripheral Viewing SUMMARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 6 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 6.1 INTRODUCTION 6.2 SINGLE-LENS INSTRUMENTS A. Eyeglasses: spherical correction B. Eyeglasses: cylindrical correction TRY IT for Section 6.2B. A Cylindrical Lens *C. Contact lenses D. The magnifying glass TRY IT for Section 6.2D. A Water Magnifying Glass 6.3 COMPOUND MICROSCOPES *A. Dark field and oil-immersion microscopy B. Scanning microscopes 6.4 TELESCOPES A. The refracting astronomical telescope B. Terrestrial telescopes TRY IT for Sections 6.2D, 6.3, 6.4A, and 6.4B. Optical Instruments C. Reflecting telescopes *D. Catadioptric telescopes *6.5 SCHLIEREN PHOTOGRAPHY *6.6 FIELD OF VIEW A. The field lens B. The projector TRY IT for Section 6.6B. The Home Slide Projector SUMMARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 7 THE HUMAN EYE AND VISION— II: PROCESSING THE IMAGE 7.1 INTRODUCTION 7.2 OVERVIEW OF THE HUMAN VISUAL SYSTEM 7.3 ELEMENTARY LIGHTNESS PERCEPTION A. Brightness and lightness B. Lightness constancy C. Weber’s law TRY IT for Section 7.3. Uniform Fields of Light First TRY IT for Section 7.3C. Weber’s Law and Its Limitations Second TRY IT for Section 7.3C. Fun with Phosphenes 7.4 RETINAL PROCESSING I: LATERAL INHIBITION A. Mechanism of lightness constancy B. Simultaneous lightness contrast First TRY IT for Section 7.4B. Simultaneous Contrast Second TRY IT for Section 7.4B. Lateral Inhibition and Shadows C. Receptive fields D. Processing edges 7.5 RETINAL PROCESSING II: NEGATIVE AFTERIMAGES *7.6 EYE MOVEMENTS A. Retinal stabilization 7.7 TEMPORAL RESPONSE A. Positive afterimages First TRY IT for Section 7.7A. Positive Afterimages Second TRY IT for Section 7.7A. Thaumatrope Third TRY IT for Section 7.7A. The Ghost in the Window Fourth TRY IT for Section 7.7A. Zoetrope Fifth TRY IT for Section 7.7A. Fantascope *B. Stroboscopes TRY IT for Section 7.7B. Stroboscopes *7.8 CHANNELS: SPATIAL FREQUENCY AND TILT A. Contrast sensitivity function B. Channels *7.9 OTHER CHANNELS TRY IT for Section 7.9. Spiral Aftereffect *7.10 MACHINE VISION A. Template matching B. Channel approaches SUMMARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 8 BINOCULAR VISION AND THE PERCEPTION OF DEPTH 8.1 INTRODUCTION TRY IT for Section 8.1. Two Eyes Provide Two Views 8.2 ACCOMMODATION 8.3 CONVERGENCE TRY IT for Section 8.3. Convergence and Depth 8.4 PARALLAX 8.5 BINOCULAR DISPARITY First TRY IT for Section 8.5. Depth and Chromatic Aberration Second TRY IT for Section 8.5. Increase Your Binocular Disparity A. The stereoscope and related optical instruments and toys First TRY IT for Section 8.5A. Constructing and Viewing Stereo Pictures Second TRY IT for Section 8.5A. The Dark Axle Third TRY IT for Section 8.5A. Three-Dimensional Shadows Fourth TRY IT for Section 8.5A. Order Out of Chaos B. Lenticular screens *C. The Pulfrich phenomenon TRY IT for Section 8.5C. The Pulfrich Pendulum and a Variation 8.6 THREE DIMENSIONS VERSUS TWO DIMENSIONS AND THE AMBIGUOUS DEPTH CUES A. Size B. Geometrical perspective *C. Variations in brightness (shadows) *D. Variations in color *E. Variations in sharpness *F. Patterns *G. Overlay (interposition) *H. Previous knowledge SUMMARY PROBLEMS FOCUS ON . . . . X-Ray Tomography CHAPTER 9 COLOR 9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.2 COLOR VERSUS WAVELENGTH, AND NONSPECTRAL COLORS 9.3 THE INTENSITY-DISTRIBUTION CURVE AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF COLORS TRY IT for Section 9.3. Surface Reflections and Saturation 9.4 COLOR MIXING BY ADDITION A. The simple additive rules B. Complementary colors TRY IT for Section 9.4B. Complementary Colors and Negative Afterimages C. Chromaticity diagrams 9.5 WAYS OF MIXING COLORS BY ADDITION A. Simple addition B. Partitive mixing TRY IT for Section 9.5B. Partitive Mixing *C. Other ways First TRY IT for Section 9.5C. The Color Wheel Second TRY IT for Section 9.5C. Binocular Additive Color Mixing 9.6 COLOR MIXING BY SUBTRACTION A. The simple subtractive rules TRY IT for Section 9.6A. Making a Spectrum and Transmittance and Reflectance Curves B. Subtractive mixture laws for realistic filters and dyes TRY IT for Section 9.6B. Subtractive Mixtures of a Color with Itself 9.7 DEPENDENCE OF SUBTRACTIVE COLOR ON THE LIGHT SOURCE *A. Which white light source is best? *9.8 WATER COLORS AND PRINTER’S INKS A. Halftones First TRY IT for Section 9.8A. Halftones Second TRY IT for Section 9.8A. Moire Patterns *9.9 PIGMENTS, PAINTS, AND PAINTINGS A. Simple rules B. Complications TRY IT for Section 9.9B. Mixing Pigment Colors C. Example: dependence on pigment size D. Example: dependence on relative index of refraction First TRY IT for Section 9.9D. The Reappearing Spot Second TRY IT for Section 9.9D. Seeing Through the Newspaper E. Example: mixing in black pigment (shades) TRY IT for Section 9.9E. How Black is Black Paint? F. Example: mixing in white pigment (tints) G. Example: dependence on surface reflections TRY IT for Section 9.9G. Textured Surfaces H. Conclusions SUMMARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 10 COLOR PERCEPTION MECHANISMS 10.1 INTRODUCTION 10.2 TRICHROMACY OF COLOR VISION A. Overlap of response curves B. Spectral complementaries C. Hue discrimination D. Microspectrophotometry TRY IT for Section 10.2. Scotopic Vision and Color 10.3 COLOR MIXING AND MATCHING 10.4 OPPONENT PROCESSING A. Color naming B. Hue cancellation C. Neural connections D. Chromaticity diagram *10.5 COLOR DEFICIENCY A. Monochromacy TRY IT for Section 10.5A. Color Blindness of a Photocopier B. Dichromacy C. Trichromacy 10.6 SPATIAL PROCESSING OF COLOR A. Chromatic lateral inhibition TRY IT for Section 10.6A. Simultaneous Color Contrast B. Color constancy First TRY IT for Section 10.6B. Colored Shadows and Hering Papers Second TRY IT for Section 10.6B. Dependence of Color on Your State of Adaptation C. Spatial assimilation 10.7 TEMPORAL PROCESSING A. Standard negative afterimages B. Positive afterimages *C. Other temporal effects First TRY IT for Section 10.7C. Benham’s Disk Second TRY IT for Section 10.7C. Latency and Color *10.8 CONTINGENT AFTEREFFECTS AND MEMORY SUMMARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 11 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 11.1 INTRODUCTION 11.2 PRINCIPLES 11.3 ADDITIVE COLOR FILM 11.4 SUBTRACTIVE COLOR FILM *A. Dye destruction *B. Technicolor and dye transfer C. Couplers D. Kodachrome development *E. Home development *F. Color negatives *G. Masking TRY IT for Section 11.4G. Masking and Contrast *H. Instant color photography TRY IT for Section 11.4H. Manipulating Instant Photographs *11.5 FALSE COLOR, INTENDED AND UNINTENDED First TRY IT for Section 11.5. Motion as Color Second TRY IT for Section 11.5. Spectral Response of Color Film *11.6 KIRLIAN PHOTOGRAPHY SUMMARY PROBLEMS FOCUS ON . . . . Special Effects in the Movies CHAPTER 12 WAVE OPTICS 12.1 INTRODUCTION 12.2 INTERFERENCE A. Interference from two point sources B. Coherence C. Thin films First TRY IT for Section 12.2C. Oil on Troubled Waters Second TRY IT for Section 12.2C. Interference in Soap Films Third TRY IT for Section 12.2C. Newtonfs Rings and Mirror D. Young’s fringes E. Spacing between the fringes TRY IT for Section 12.2E. Moire Model of Two-Source Interference F. White-light fringes TRY IT for Sections 12.2D, E, and F. Young’s Fringes G. Interference of many coherent sources 12.3 APPLICATIONS OF INTERFERENCE A. Gratings TRY IT for Section 12.3A. Diffraction Gratings *B. Interferometers C. Multiple layers of thin films D. Standing waves 12.4 BABINET’S AND HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLES A. Babinet’s principle B. Huygens’ principle 12.5 DIFFRACTION A. Diffraction from a slit or a hole First TRY IT for Section 12.5A. Fresnel Diffraction Second TRY IT for Section 12.5A. Diffraction Pattern of a Hole *B. Coronas and glories C. Resolving power *D. Image reconstruction and spatial filtering SUMMARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 13 SCATTERING AND POLARIZATION 13.1 INTRODUCTION TRY IT for Section 13.1. Light Beams 13.2 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING TRY IT for Section 13.2. Blue Skies 13.3 POLARIZATION DUE TO SCATTERING A. Polarized light B. Polarization due to Rayleigh scattering TRY IT for Section 13.3B. Polarization of the Sky 13.4 POLARIZATION DUE TO REFLECTION TRY IT for Section 13.4. Polarization of Reflected Light 13.5 POLARIZATION DUE TO ABSORPTION TRY IT for Section 13.5. Haidinger’s Brush 13.6 POLARIZING AND ANALYZING TRY IT for Section 13.6. Depolarization by Multiple Scattering *13.7 CONTROLLING POLARIZATION WITH ELECTRIC FIELD A. Liquid crystal displays B. Pockels and Kerr cells 13.8 BIREFRINGENCE First TRY IT for Section 13.8. Birefringent Materials Second TRY IT for Section 13.8. A Circular-Polarizing Filter Third TRY IT for Section 13.8. How To Enjoy Stress 13.9 OPTICAL ACTIVITY TRY IT for Section 13.9. Color Around the Kitchen *13.10 MORE BIREFRINGENCE —PROPAGATION AT ODD ANGLES SUMMARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 14 HOLOGRAPHY 14.1 INTRODUCTION 14.2 TRANSMISSION HOLOGRAMS A. Transmission holograms of individual point sources B. Transmission holograms of extended objects 14.3 PRODUCTION OF TRANSMISSION HOLOGRAMS 14.4 APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION HOLOGRAPHY 14.5 WHITE-LIGHT HOLOGRAMS A. Reflection hologram of a distant point source B. Production of white-light reflection holograms C. White-light transmission holograms *14.6 OTHER METHODS OF DISPLAY HOLOGRAPHY A. Image-plane holograms B. True-color holograms C. Integral holograms SUMMARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 15 LIGHT IN MODERN PHYSICS 15.1 INTRODUCTION 15.2 PARTICLES AND WAVES A. The photoelectric effect *B. Applications of the photoelectric effect C. Particle waves 15.3 ATOMIC SPECTRA A. Emission spectra B. Absorption and luminescence First TRY IT for Section 15.3B. Solar Absorption Spectrum Second TRY IT for Section 15.3B. Phosphorescence 15.4 LASERS 15.5 NEW LIGHT ON MECHANICS A. Special relativity B. Doppler shift *C. Matters of gravity *D. More shifty ideas SUMMARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 16 DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY 16.1 INTRODUCTION 16.2 LIGHT SOURCES 16.3 LENSES FOR DIGITAL IMAGES 16.4 THE IMAGE SENSOR First TRY IT for section 16.4. Pixels on a Computer screen Second TRY IT for section 16.4 Reading Out the Pixels Third TRY IT for section 16.4. Distortions from Rolling shutter 16.5 COLOR 16.6 H & D AND EXPOSURE INDEX TRY IT for Section 16.6. Fun with Histogram 16.7 THE CAMERA’S OUTPUT 16.8 WHAT, NO PICTURE TO LOOK AT? 16.9 TO BE PERFECT IS TO CHANGE OFTEN MATHEMATICAL APPENDIXES A. THE POWERS OF TEN NOTATION B. THE MATHEMATICAL FORM OF SNELL’S LAW C. THE FOCAL POINT OF A CONVEX MIRROR D. THE MIRROR EQUATION E. THE LENS EQUATION F. TWO THIN LENSES TOUCHING G. PHOTOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE H. A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FOCAL LENGTH AND MAGNIFICATION I. LOGARITHMS J. TELESCOPE MAGNIFICATION K. POSITIONS OF INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION FRINGES L. BREWSTER’S ANGLE M. MALUS’S LAW N. HOLOGRAPHIC RECORDING AND RECONSTRUCTION OF WAVES REFERENCES PHOTO CREDITS GREEK LETTERS AND SPECIAL SYMOBOLS INDEX