Rural Isolation and Dual Cultural Existence : The Japanese-American Kona Coffee Community

"This book studies the Japanese-American coffee farmers in Kona, Hawaii. Specifically, it sheds light on the role of first and second generation immigrants in the emergence of the Kona coffee agricultural economy, as well as factors that contributed to the creation of the Japanese community in Kona. The people there have survived much turmoil, including harsh treatment on the sugar plantations, economic instability, Pearl Harbor and racial stigma, and ethnic and religious identity crises. Despite these challenges, the pillars of the Japanese coffee community have remained stable."--Provided by publisher Acknowledgments 5 Contents 7 List of Figures and Pictures 8 List of Tables 10 Chapter 1: Introduction 11 The Life of Japanese Immigrants in Kona 11 Scope of This Book 18 Data Collection 19 Previous Studies on Kona 20 Anthropological Studies on Japanese Americans 22 Literature Review and Theoretical Frameworks 25 The Ethnic Identity Framework 25 Assimilation 26 Japanese American Assimilation 29 Assimilation in Kona 33 Organization of the Study 38 Notes 44 Chapter 2: The Issei: In Search of Autonomy 53 Introduction 53 Formation of the Japanese Community in Kona: Early Immigration of the Issei: The Journey to Hawaii 54 Unexpected Hard Labor: The Horror of Plantation Life 55 Encountering Kona Society: A Place of Freedom and Sanctuary 59 The Formation of the Kenjinkai: Prefecture Identification and Tokoro-Mon 60 The Formation of the Kumi: Geographic Identification in the Kona Community27 61 The Lost Dream of Returning to Japan 62 The Formation of the Kona Coffee Farming Community 63 Multicultural Kona District 68 The Beginning of the Tenant-Farming System 72 Living on the Farms 73 Coffee-Land Houses 74 Food 78 Hawaiian Tropical Clothing 82 The Kona Coffee Business: The Complex Relations of Landowners and Japanese Immigrant Laborers 82 Coffee Farming: Hard Work 85 The Coffee Off-Season: Learning, Innovation, and Resilience 90 Fishing Is Our Culture 91 Lauhala Weaving 92 Adapting to, and Surviving in, a New Environment 93 The Issei and Their Ties to the Mother Country: The Transnational Experience 95 Reshaping the Past 98 Conclusion 103 Notes 103 Chapter 3: Religious and Social Communities: The Importance of Ethnic Solidarity 113 Introduction 113 Social Communities: The Importance of Ethnic Solidarity 114 The Kenjinkai: Japanese Prefectural Identity 114 The Kumi 117 Religious Communities 122 General Introduction 122 Japanese Jinjas (Shrines) in the Early Issei Period: Kamisama 122 Overview 122 The Inari Shrine 124 Other Shinto Shrines 125 Wedding Ceremonies at Shinto Shrines 127 Ofuda (Talismans) and Omamori (Charms) 131 Kamidana and New Year’s 132 The Religious Issei’s Approach to Japanese Buddhism 134 Spirituality Among the Issei 134 Otera (Buddhist Temples44) 134 Overview 134 The Kona Hongwanji Jodo Shin-shu Temple 135 Overview 135 History 136 The Role of the Priest 137 Women and the Temples 138 The Kona Daifukuji Zen Soto-shu Temple 138 Overview 138 The Role of the Priest 139 Activities Organized by the Temple, and Relations with Shrines 140 The Kona Daishi-do Shingon-shu: The Healers 140 Overview and History of Worship Sites and Temples 140 Religious Rituals and Practices 142 Ososhiki: Traditional Ritual Funerals of the Issei 142 Hoji: A Japanese Traditional Memorial Ritual 148 The Butsudan: Japanese Buddhist Altars 151 Ohakamairi: Ritual Attendance at the Buddhist Cemetery 154 Obon: The Return of the Dead 155 Fujinkai (Buddhist Women’s Associations) 156 Overview 156 The Kona Hongwanji Fujinkai 157 The Daifukuji Zen Soto-Shu Fujinkai 158 Fujinkai: In Summary 160 Religious and Social Communities: Conclusion 160 Notes 161 Chapter 4: The Nisei Experience 168 Introduction 168 The Nisei 169 Introduction 169 Early Nisei (N1): Born Between the Late 1880s and 1906 169 The Middle Nisei (N2): Born Between 1907 and 1924 170 The Late Nisei (N3): Born Between 1925 and the 1960s 171 Dual Citizenship 172 Education: The First Encounter in the Assimilation Process 173 An Introduction to Public Schools and Private Schools in Hawaii and Kona 173 Nisei Experiences of the Public Education System 174 Educational Opportunities Among the Nisei 176 Nisei Names 179 Kamon (Family Crest) 182 Japanese-Language Schools: Language as a Symbolic Tool, Ethnic Identifier, and Cultural Bridge 183 Japanese Behavioral Norms and Values 188 Haji: Don’t Bring Shame to Us 188 On: Giving Back to Others 189 Oyakoko: The Perfect Child and Citizen 189 Tatemae (the Art of Hiding Your Feelings) and Enryo (When to Say No) 191 Bachi: Bad Karma 194 Japanese Behavioral Norms and Values: Closing Arguments 195 Marriage: To Appease One’s Parents 196 To Farm, to Study, or to Leave? The Influence of Family on Nisei Life Choices and the Development of the Nisei Japanese Community 198 The Influence of One’s Family on the Future of Coffee Farming 198 Continuing to Farm 200 Landowner or Lease-Holder? 202 Why Did People Choose to Buy Land? 203 How Was the Purchase of Land Afforded? 204 Combining Landownership with Lease Holding 206 The White Landowners 206 The Effects of Becoming a Landowner 207 To Farm, to Study or to Leave? The Influence of Family on Nisei Life Choices and the Development of the Nisei Japanese Community: Closing Arguments 208 Japanese, Japanese American, or Pure Japanese? The Formation of Japanese Ethnic Identity Among the Nisei in Kona District 209 Conclusion 211 Notes 213 Chapter 5: World War II 220 Introduction 220 Wartime Experiences 220 The Struggles and Hardships of Nisei Life During World War II 220 Attacks on Japanese Religion 224 The Destruction of the Kamisama (Shinto Shrines) 224 The Survival of the Temples 225 The Kona Hongwanji Jodo Shin-Shu 225 The Kona Daifukuji Zen Soto-Shu 226 Elements of Japanese-ness Affected by the War 227 Nisei in the US Armed Forces 228 Nisei Loyalty: To Join the Armed Forces or Not? 228 442nd Regimental Combat Team/100th Infantry Battalion 229 The 442nd RCT/100th Battalion After the War 230 The Sons and Daughters of the 442nd RCT: The Role of the Sansei in Veterans’ Organizations and Remembrance 231 Recent History of the Veterans of the 442nd 232 Conclusion 233 Notes 234 Chapter 6: Rebuilding Social and Religious Communities: The Aftermath of the War 237 Introduction 237 Post-War Changes in Coffee Farming and in the Social Organization of the Nisei 238 Farming 238 Changes to the Social Organizations of the Nisei 239 The Kumi: The Nisei Experience 239 Other Social Changes 240 Limited Physical Changes to Houses 240 Electricity: Nothing to Plug In 241 Piped Water 242 Food Trends During and After the War 242 Post-War Changes to the Religious Life of the Nisei 245 Rebuilding the Temples: The Kona Hongwanji Jodo Shin-shu and the Kona Daifukuji Zen Soto-shu 245 Reestablishment of the Kona Daishi-do Shingon-shu Temple 249 Funerals: Out with Tradition—The Nisei Experience 250 The Family Butsudan: A Place of Comfort for the Religious Nisei 253 Ohakamairi: A Religious Ritual Experience for the Nisei 257 The New Japanese Buddhist Kekkon Shiki (Wedding): The Nisei Experience 264 Shinto: The Lost Religion 269 Conclusion 272 Notes 274 Chapter 7: Conclusion 276 Bibliography 284 Japanese-Language Sources 293 Newspapers and Periodicals 293 Unpublished Sources: Materials from Archival Collections 293 Online Sources 294 Reports 294 Private Collections 294 Index1 295 Front Matter....Pages i-xi Introduction....Pages 1-42 The Issei: In Search of Autonomy....Pages 43-102 Religious and Social Communities: The Importance of Ethnic Solidarity....Pages 103-157 The Nisei Experience....Pages 159-210 World War II....Pages 211-227 Rebuilding Social and Religious Communities: The Aftermath of the War....Pages 229-267 Conclusion....Pages 269-276 Back Matter....Pages 277-295