برق‌رسانی روستایی: بهینه‌سازی اقتصاد، برنامه‌ریزی و سیاست در دوران تغییرات اقلیمی و انتقال انرژی

__Rural Electrification__ poses solutions to the insuperable modern challenge of providing 24/7 electricity for populations, housing and territory located outside towns and cities. The book reviews the historical development of rural energy systems, their status quo, and the role of renewable and fossil fueled solutions in delivering electricity. It addresses core issues of energy source typologies, resource deployment, fundamental challenges and limitations, the burgeoning threat of climate change, and the role of the renewable energy transition. Chapters account for almost all forms of fuel solutions, with a focus on electrification economics, planning, and policy using the most cost-effective fuels and systems available. Novel approaches to address the challenges of rural electrification, including distributed generation systems, new management and ownership models, off-grid systems, and future energy technologies are thoroughly explored. The work concludes with a comparative assessment of different energy supply technologies and scenarios, contrasting the pros and cons of fossil fuels versus renewable energy resources to achieve the goal of comprehensive rural electrification. Front-Matter_2021_Rural-Electrification Rural Electrification Copyright_2021_Rural-Electrification Copyright Dedication_2021_Rural-Electrification Dedication List-of-figures_2021_Rural-Electrification List of figures List-of-tables_2021_Rural-Electrification List of tables List-of-boxes_2021_Rural-Electrification List of boxes Foreword_2021_Rural-Electrification Foreword Preface_2021_Rural-Electrification Preface Acknowledgements_2021_Rural-Electrification Acknowledgements Abbreviations_2021_Rural-Electrification Abbreviations 1---Energy-s-general-introduction-fossil-fuels--amp--r_2021_Rural-Electrific 1. Energy's general introduction(fossil fuels & renewable energy) 1.1 Brief main aspects of renewable energy 1.1.1 Biomass 1.1.2 Hydro 1.1.3 Ocean thermals 1.1.4 Geothermal 1.1.5 Solar 1.1.6 Wind turbine 1.2 Hybrid systems 1.3 Sustainability 1.4 Oil consumption 1.4.1 USA 1.4.2 China 1.4.3 India 1.5 What are the impacts of global warming and climate change? 1.6 Energy storage systems (The sixth dimension) 1.6.1 ESS examples 1.7 Type of sustainable energy needed References 2---Coal_2021_Rural-Electrification 2. Coal 2.1 Production of coal 2.1.1 The formation of coal 2.1.2 Production 2.1.3 Exploration 2.1.4 Geography 2.1.5 Geopolitics 2.1.5.1 Industry structure 2.2 Fiscal systems 2.3 The global coal market 2.3.1 Supply and demand 2.3.2 Global trade 2.3.3 Characteristics of coal 2.3.4 Coal value & prices 2.3.5 Forecast for the coal market 2.3.6 Is coal supporting rural electrification? 2.4 The future of coal 2.5 Transition to rural electricity – is this feasible? 2.6 Conclusion References Further reading 3---Crude-oil_2021_Rural-Electrification 3. Crude oil 3.1 Exploration 3.2 Production 3.3 Geography 3.4 Geopolitics – OPEC; the rise of US shale production 3.5 Industry structure – IOCs, NOCs, GSEs 3.6 Fiscal systems: R/T; PSAs/PSCs; service agreements 3.6.1 The global market for oil 3.6.2 Supply and demand fundamentals & drivers 3.6.3 Characteristics of crude oil 3.6.4 How crude oil obtains its value 3.6.5 Crude oil quality – sweet/sour; heavy/light 3.6.6 Importance of quality and correlation to the price obtained 3.6.7 Benchmark crudes 3.6.8 Trading centers – ICE, NYMEX, Singapore 3.6.9 Price discovery 3.6.10 Contango and backwardation 3.6.11 Derivatives and futures 3.7 Transportation 3.7.1 Crude oil transportation (oil field gathering systems; pipeline; crude oil tankers) 3.7.2 Petroleum product transportation (railcars, coastal tanker, road tankers) 3.7.3 Intermediate storage & terminalling 3.7.4 Economics & optimization 3.8 Refining 3.8.1 Basics of refining 3.8.2 Petroleum products produced 3.8.3 Refinery yields 3.8.4 Challenges 3.8.5 Process safety 3.8.6 Refining economics 3.9 End users 3.9.1 Aviation 3.9.2 Road transportation (hauliers, railways, shipping) 3.9.3 Service station networks 3.9.4 Heating oil (Domestic and industrial) 3.9.5 Other users/uses (petroleum gases; lubricants; waxes; bitumen) References Further reading 4---Natural-gas_2021_Rural-Electrification 4. Natural gas 4.1 How gas is formed 4.2 Geography 4.2.1 Lack of historical interconnection between gas fields and consumers 4.2.2 Challenges of storage and transportation versus oil 4.3 The market for natural gas 4.3.1 Market regionalization 4.3.2 Integrated supply chain for natural gas using LNG trains 4.3.3 Developing the LNG market in contrast with that for oil 4.4 LNG Transportation for natural gas References 5---Project-management-in-oil-and-gas_2021_Rural-Electrification 5. Project management in oil and gas 5.1 Upstream E&P projects 5.2 Megaprojects 5.3 Best practices in project management 5.4 Differences between project management & operations management 5.5 Business case for projects fundamentals - payback, NPV 5.6 Risk and uncertainty 5.7 Network planning 5.8 Contracting options – EPC, EPCM, BOOT, DB, Turnkey 5.9 Fossil fuels future development 5.9.1 Shale oil 5.9.2 Unconventional crude oils 5.9.3 Biofuels/fossil fuels mix 5.9.4 Synthetic production 5.9.5 Gas-to-liquid production 5.9.6 OPEC's waning power? 5.9.7 Sustainable development 5.9.8 Meeting demands of global population growth 5.9.9 Future transition from oil and gas to electricity 5.10 Conclusion References Further reading 6---Distributed-generation-systems--DGS-_2021_Rural-Electrification 6. Distributed generation systems (DGS) 6.1 DG key factors 6.2 DG general applications 6.3 DG barriers 6.4 Extension of the existing grid (EEG) 6.4.1 Introduction 6.4.2 Grid extension to the countryside 6.4.3 Summary (EEG) 6.5 Off-grid systems 6.6 Important factors 6.7 Examples of DG technologies 6.8 Problems 6.9 Conventional energies for off-grid use 6.10 Conclusion References 7---Distributed-generation-systems--DGS---System-har_2021_Rural-Electrificat 7. Distributed generation systems (DGS) 7.1 Reciprocating engines (RE) 7.2 Microturbine (MT) 7.3 Combustion turbine (CT) 7.3.1 CT summary 7.4 Fuel cell (FC) 7.4.1 FC summary 7.5 Renewable energies for off-grid applications 7.6 Examples of RE DG applications 7.7 Solar Power (Solar Photovoltaic Power “SPP”) 7.7.1 Solar power summary 7.8 Biomass energy 7.8.1 Biomass energy summary 7.9 Wind turbines (WT) 7.9.1 WT summary 7.10 Geothermal 7.10.1 Geothermal summary 7.11 Hydropower 7.11.1 Micro hydropower system (MHPS) 7.11.2 MHPS summary 7.12 Ocean thermal power (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion - OTEC) 7.12.1 OTEC summary 7.13 DG using the hybrid system 7.14 Hybrid systems 7.14.1 Hybrid system summary 7.15 Examples of hybrid systems 7.15.1 PV-wind (PVW) 7.15.2 Wind-diesel (WD) 7.15.3 Wind-small hydro 7.15.4 Wind-PV-micro hydro 7.16 Additional technologies 7.17 Recommendations 7.17.1 Conclusion References 8---Rural-electrification-projects_2021_Rural-Electrification 8. Rural electrification projects 8.1 Rural projects 8.2 Electrification projects 8.3 Project structure 8.4 Project aspects 8.5 Stages 8.6 Conclusion References 9---Finance_2021_Rural-Electrification 9. Finance 9.1 Rural finance 9.2 The process 9.3 Financing issues and barriers 9.4 Solutions 9.5 Financial structure 9.5.1 Micro-level 9.5.2 Meso-level 9.5.3 Macro-level 9.5.3.1 Micro-level 9.5.3.2 Meso-level 9.5.3.3 Macro-level 9.6 Financial schemes 9.7 Financing stand-alone (off-grid) systems 9.8 Sources of finance for rural electrification 9.8.1 UN (United Nations) 9.8.2 UNCDF (United Nations Capital Development Fund) 9.8.3 Supporting financial services 9.8.4 UNDP (United Nations Development Program) 9.8.5 Environment and Energy 9.9 The World Bank 9.10 Cooperatives organizations 9.11 Micro-financing 9.11.1 Microfinance and rural electrification 9.12 Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) 9.13 Other banking and financial support services 9.14 Asian Development Bank 9.15 African Development Bank (AfDB) group 9.16 Energy subsidy 9.16.1 The positive aspects of subsidy 9.16.2 The negative aspects of subsidy 9.16.3 IEA global subsidy 9.17 Rural electrification financial challenges 9.18 Conclusion References 10---Cooperative-model_2021_Rural-Electrification 10. Cooperative model 10.1 Example 10.1.1 The model 10.1.2 Rural electricity consumption and tariff 10.2 Energy cooperative 10.3 Memberships 10.3.1 Statistics 10.3.2 The model 10.3.3 Town profile 10.3.4 Town energy data 10.4 Financing renewable energy project 10.5 Methodology 10.5.1 Renewable energy analyser two (REA2) approach 10.5.2 Structure 10.6 Conclusion References 11---Energy-economics_2021_Rural-Electrification 11. Energy economics 11.1 Energy demand in the 20th Century 11.2 Energy transition at the Dawn of the 21st Century 11.3 Oil demand trends in the early 21st Century 11.4 Natural gas consumption and the LNG revolution 11.5 Supply developments in the energy sector 11.6 Supply developments in oil and gas markets 11.7 LNG supply and trade 11.8 Developments in renewable energy 11.9 The future of fossil fuels 11.10 Energy investment trends 11.11 Oil price drivers 11.12 Gas prices 11.13 Global energy by sector: industrial, transport and buildings 11.14 The power sector 11.15 The issues of rural electrification 11.16 Off-grid electrification options 11.17 Levelized Costs of electricity 11.18 Conclusion References 12---Energy-technologies-and-energy-storage-systems-for-_2021_Rural-Electrif 12. Energy technologies and energy storage systems for sustainable development 12.1 Rural areas and power supply 12.2 The energy problems of modern societies 12.3 Renewable energy as a way out of the energy crises 12.4 Alternative energy sources: development & prospects 12.4.1 Solar energy collection using a spherical sun power generator 12.4.2 Space-based solar power (SBSP) 12.4.3 Algal biofuel 12.4.4 Tidal power 12.4.5 Nuclear waste 12.4.6 Solar windows 12.4.7 Human power 12.4.8 Flying wind farms 12.4.9 Nuclear fusion 12.5 Energy storage systems 12.5.1 Energy storage (ES) 12.5.2 Benefits of energy storage 12.5.3 Energy storage technologies 12.5.4 Energy policies dependent upon EES technologies 12.6 Conclusion References 13---Rural-electrification--field-visits_2021_Rural-Electrification 13. Rural electrification: field visits 13.1 India 13.1.1 Solar-PV power system 13.1.2 Solar-PV system observations and changes 13.1.3 Rice husk power system 13.2 Rice husk system observations & changes 13.2.1 Changes 13.3 Conclusion 13.4 Mozambique 13.4.1 Energy resources 13.4.2 Electricity 13.5 Generation capacity 13.6 Connections 13.6.1 Pungwe village 13.6.2 Pungwe electricity supply 13.6.3 The clinic 13.6.4 The school 13.6.5 Water pumping 13.6.6 Systems data 13.6.7 Solar-PV system observations and changes 13.6.8 Conclusion References Author-index_2021_Rural-Electrification Author index A B C D E F G H I J K L M O P R S T U V W Y Z Subject-index_2021_Rural-Electrification Subject index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V W Rural Electrification poses solutions to the insuperable modern challenge of providing 24/7 electricity for populations, housing and territory located outside towns and cities. The book reviews the historical development of rural energy systems, their status quo, and the role of renewable and fossil fueled solutions in delivering electricity. It addresses core issues of energy source typologies, resource deployment, fundamental challenges and limitations, the burgeoning threat of climate change, and the role of the renewable energy transition. Chapters account for almost all forms of fuel solutions, with a focus on electrification economics, planning, and policy using the most cost-effective fuels and systems available. Novel approaches to address the challenges of rural electrification, including distributed generation systems, new management and ownership models, off-grid systems, and future energy technologies are thoroughly explored. The work concludes with a comparative assessment of different energy supply technologies and scenarios, contrasting the pros and cons of fossil fuels versus renewable energy resources to achieve the goal of comprehensive rural electrification. Provides a suite of new approaches to deliver and expand electrification across challenging rural environments Describes optimal economics, planning and policy for electrification where there is no access to electricity Reviews how practitioners can achieve cost reductions for rural energy supply using existing technologies Addresses routes to power rural electrification within a transitioning energy economy while simultaneously accounting for climate change considerations