Routledge Handbook of Non-Violent Extremism : Groups, Perspectives and New Debates

This Handbook provides the first in-depth analysis of non-violent extremism across different ideologies and geographic centres, a topic overshadowed until now by the political and academic focus on violent and jihadi extremism in the Global North. Whilst acknowledging the potentiality of non-violent extremism as a precursor to terrorism, this Handbook argues that non-violent extremism ought to be considered a stand-alone area of study. Focusing on Islamist, Buddhist, Hindu, far-right, far-left, environmentalist and feminist manifestations, the Handbook discusses the ideological foundation of their ‘war on ideas’ against the prevailing socio-political and cultural systems in which they operate, and provides an empirical examination of their main claims and perspectives. This is supplemented by a truly global overview of non-violent extremist groups not only in Europe and the United States, but also in Africa, Asia, Oceania and the Middle East. The Handbook thus answers a call to decolonise knowledge that is especially prescient given both the complicity of non-violent extremists with authoritarian states and the dynamic of oppression towards more progressive groups in the Global South. The Handbook will appeal to those studying extremism, radicalisation and terrorism. It intersects several relevant disciplines, including social movement studies, political science, criminology, Islamic studies and anthropology. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Illustrations Contributors Foreword Preface Introduction: Why Do We Need a Handbook On Non-Violent Forms of Extremism? Introduction Vocal Or Non-Violent Extremism: A Continuum From Radicalisation to Terrorism Radicalisation Extremism Terrorism Vocal Or Non-Violent Extremism: A New Research Agenda Non-violent Extremism: A Firewall Or Conveyor Belt to Violent Extremism in the 21st Century? The Conceptual Debate The Policy Debate The Need for a Handbook On Non-Violent Extremism Notes References Part 1 Between Extremisms: Violence and Non-Violence Across Multiple Ideologies 1 Sticky Ideologies and Non-Violent Heterodox Politics Introduction Conspiratorial Narratives and Anti-Government Movements Styles of Reasoning Methodology: “Order at All Points” in Investigative Digital Ethnography Anti-vax and the Anti-Government Rage Register Pilot Data: Facebook, Reddit and Instagram Concluding Remarks Acknowledgement Notes References 2 “Screw Your Optics”: The Ambivalent Role of Violence in Islamist and Far-Right Extremism The Policy and Research Landscape Around “Non-Violent Extremism” Policy Context Research Debates Terminological Criticism Non-violent Extremism as a Precursor of Violent Extremism? Safety Valve Islamism and “Non-Violent Extremism” Ideological Distinction Between “Violent” and “Non-Violent” Islamist Extremist Groups Pathways Between Violence and Non-Violence Case Study: Hizb-Ut-Tahrir The Far-Right and “Non-Violent Extremism” “Post-Organisational” Far-Right Extremism Digital Spaces: Blurring the Lines Between Non-Violent and Violent Extremism On the Far Right Case Study: Generation Identity Conclusion Notes References 3 “Boys Who Hate Girls, Who Hate Boys, Who Hate Girls”: A Quantitative Exploration of the Relationship Between Misogyny, ... Introduction Understanding Contemporary Misogyny A Brief History of Incels Radicalisation in the Incel Community Incel Ideology Method Factor Analysis Results Discussion Conclusion References Part 2 ‘Old’ and ‘New’ Religious Extremisms: Non-Violent Islamist, Buddhist and Hindu Movements 4 When Ideology Is All That Matters!: Exploring Non-Violent Islamism Through Fetullah Gülen and Taqiuddin An-Nabhani Introduction An-Nabhani and Gülen: Religious Purism and the Struggle Against Sin The Clash of Civilizations When Purity Attracts Persecutions: Hizb Ut-Tahrir Discipline as a Social Good: Gulen’s Relationship With Authorities “Intellectual Islamists”: A Methodology Based On Education Hizb Ut-Tahrir: The Educator of the Masses The Impact of Education On the Internal Dimension: The Hizbies The Impact of Education On the External Dimension: Hizb Ut-Tahrir’s Three-Fold Strategy Education and Methodology: The Hizmet’s Strategy Conclusion Notes References 5 The Tabligh Jama’at and Its Non-Violent Resoluteness Introduction A Brief Overview of the History of the Tabligh Jama’at Extremism Non-violent Extremism Tabligh Jama’at’s Ideology: A Non-Violent Approach to Remaking the World Conclusion: The Tabligh Jama’at and Its Non-Violent Resoluteness Note References 6 Reaction, Restoration, and the Return of Alpha-Islam: Wahhabism From Premodern Ideas to Postmodern Identities Introduction: The Vicissitudes of a Contentious Term Epistemic Commitments in Wahhabi Theology: The (R)age of the Righteous Hanbalism On Steroids: The Wahhabi “New Deal” A Form of Fundamentalism: Surveillance Theology and the Psychosocial Dynamics of Wahhabism Social Identities, “Retrotopian” Socialization, and the Construction of Counterculture Ideational Contestations Between Wahhabism and Rival Forms of Salafism: The Recurrent Trichotomy Wahhabis Versus Salafis: Seven Differentiators Madkhalis and Their Enemies: Contending Extremisms Concluding Thoughts: Wither Wahhabism? Notes References 7 The New Landscape of Extremism and Its Intersection With Political Islamists in Turkey Introduction Context: The Rise of Extremism in Turkey Revival of Islamist Extremism in Turkey Transition Within Violent and Non-Violent Groups Ideology and Organizational Structures Hizbullah and Hüda-Par The Islamic Great Eastern Raiders Front (IBDA-C) The Malatyalilar Group Humanitarian Relief Foundation (Insani Yardim Vakfi – IHH) Hizb Ut-Tahrir Methods and Use of Violence in Turkish Islamist Extremist Groups Hizbullah and Hüda-Par The Islamic Great Eastern Raiders Front (IBDA-C) The Malatyalilar Group Humanitarian Relief Foundation (Insani Yardim Vakfi – IHH) Hizb Ut-Tahrir The Rise of a New Generation Ultra-Nationalist Islamist Groups Youth Clubs and Hearths Conclusion Note References 8 The Muslim Brotherhood in the West: Firewall Or Conveyor Belt? Insights From the British Debate What Is the Muslim Brotherhood in the West? The Western Muslim Brotherhood and Radicalization The Brotherhood as Firewall The Brotherhood as Conveyor Belt The “Mood Music” Argument Victimhood Justification of Violence Conclusion Notes References 9 Nativist Expressions of Non-Violent Extremism in Malaysia: The Case of Ikatan Muslimin Malaysia (ISMA: Muslim Solidarity ... Introduction ISMA: A Brief Background Global Underpinnings of Non-Violent Islamist Extremism in Southeast Asia From Global to Local: Malaysia’s Islamist Setting Non-Violent Islamist Extremism in a Multi-Cultural Nation State: The Case of Contemporary Malaysia ISMA: Malay-Muslim Activism in a Multi-Cultural Nation State Radicalisation of ISMA’s Discourse in the Post-Millennial Age Can ISMA’s Non-Violence Be Trusted? Concluding Remarks Notes References 10 Non-Violent Salafist Political Engagement: Comparing Egypt’s Al-Nour Party With Kuwait’s Islamic Salafi Alliance Introduction Approaches to Salafism Evolution and Characteristics The “Arab Spring” and Its Aftermath Dawa/al-Nour’s Experiment With Politics and Decline Dancing With the Devil ISA’s Response to Kuwaiti Protests and Its Decline Conclusion References 11 Debating Islamism as an Expression of Political Islam Introduction The Debate On Islamism Perspectives On Islamism Islamism vs. Salafism: The Origin Usulism Synergies Between Islamism, Salafism, and Usulism Salafism and Islamism: The Case of Shariat Sanglaji of Iran Neo-Islamism Conclusion Notes References 12 Enraged Buddhism: Violent, Non-Violent and “Not-Violent” Extremism in Myanmar A Violent Buddhist Mob – Is This a Thing? Violence, Non-Violence and “Not-Violence”: Some Definitions Non-violence: Monks and the 2007 Saffron Revolution Violence and Not-Violence: Monks and the Campaign Against the Rohingya Liminal Spaces: Monks as Fire Starters Conclusion Notes References 13 Buddhist Constructions as a Tool of Non-Violent Extremism in Post-Conflict Sri Lanka Introduction Eruption of Violent Extremism in Post-Independent Sri Lanka The Colonial Legacy of Sinhalese Buddhist Nationalism Youth Discontent as a Driver of Violent Extremism Against State Sangha as Enablers of Violent Extremism The Inconspicuous Rise of Non-Violent Extremism in the Post-Conflict Context Reinforcement of Singular Sinhalese Buddhist Historical Narratives Buddhist Temples as Sites of Dominance The Nexus Between the Sangha and Military Concluding Remarks Notes References 14 Current Trends in Buddhist Extremism and Anti-Muslim Ideology: A Study of Sri Lanka Introduction Contextualising Buddhist Extremism in Sri Lanka The Contested Position of Islam in Sri Lanka Overview of Buddhist Extremist Violence and Non-Violence in Sri Lanka Discussion Conclusion Bibliography Part 3 Far-Right Extremism: Non-Violence Among Movements On the Exclusionary Right 15 Barriers to Violence Activism On the UK Far Right: The Case of the (Democratic) Football Lads Alliance Introduction Purely Strategic? Frames of Non-Violence Within the Contemporary UK Far Right Rhetorical Commitments to Non-Violence: DFLA’s Founding Statement, Public Facebook Page and Early Demonstrations Testing Commitments to Non-Violence: The DFLA Schism, Brushes With the Established UK Far Right and Later Demonstrations Content Analysis: Rhetorical Constructions of Non-Violence in the DFLA Conclusions and Recommendations Notes Bibliography 16 The Appeal of the New Far Right in the United Kingdom: A Look Inside the New Far-Right Recruitment Pool Fascism and the New Far Right Origins, Ideologies, and Methodologies of Three New Far-Right Groups For Britain Movement The DFLA PEGIDA UK Methodology Comparative Analysis of Demographics: The For Britain Movement, the DFLA, and PEGIDA UK Gender Education Level Sexuality Is There a Link Between These Demographics and Violence? The Path Towards Violence and the Role of Conspiracy Theories The Link Between Hypermasculinity, Homophobia, and Violence Conclusion Notes References 17 Weaponising the Alliance for the Unity of Romanians (AUR): Novelties and Continuums in Romania’s Far-Right Political ... Introduction Introducing AUR: Origins, Ideology & Modus Operandi Categorizing AUR: Recognizing Conceptual Crossroads AUR’s Historical Revisionism: Assembling Romanian Extremism From the Past AUR’s Campaign Tactics: From Soccer to Politics Via Populism Towards an AUR “Winning Strategy”? From Dacian Gold to Political Gold Conclusion Notes Bibliography 18 Far-Right Nationalist Politics in Turkey: Division of the Nationalist Camp Between the MHP and the Good Party Introduction Cleavage Theory Socio-Political Cleavages and Right-Wing Nationalism in Turkey An Overview and Ideological Background of the MHP as the Main Actor of Far Right Rethinking Far-Right Nationalism in Turkey: Cleavages, Alliances, and Emergence of the Good Party as a New Actor Struggle to Represent the “Cause” of Turkish Nationalism: Shifts Between Non-Violence and Violence Concluding Remarks Notes References 19 The Greek White Power Music Scene: Feeding Extremism With Lyrics Introduction Defining the Extreme Right Defining Extreme-Right Subcultures White Power Music Historical Review of the Greek White Power Music Methodology Exploring the Data Discussion: How Non-Violent Rhetoric Can Foster Violent Action Conclusion Notes References 20 The Identitarian Movement and Its Contemporary Manifestations Introduction The Origins of Identitarianism and Spread to Europe and Beyond Origins and Precursors of the IM Metapolitics and Traditionalism The Key Role of the Nouvelle Droite The French Ethnonationalist Right Key Contemporary IM Thinkers A Summary of Key IM Ideas Conclusion Note Bibliography 21 Far-Right PEGIDA: Non-Violent Protest and the Blurred Lines Between the Radical and Extreme Right Introduction The “Patriotic Europeans”: PEGIDA’s Emergence and Persistence PEGIDA as “Non-Violent Resistance”: Memories of the “Peaceful Revolution” Extremist Features in PEGIDA Discourse Despite Its Support for Democracy Conclusion Acknowledgments Notes References 22 Metapolitics and the Us Far Right: On the “Non-Violent” Approach to Alt-Right Social Transformation Introduction Antonio Gramsci’s Concept of Metapolitics The Struggle for Hegemony Within Civil Society New Right Metapolitics New Right Metapolitics Migrates to America Trump and the Alt-Right: Dialectical Metapolitics Conclusion Notes Bibliography 23 Anti-Gender Campaigns as a Threat to Liberal Democracy Introduction The Anti-Gender Movement: Ultra-Conservative Ideology and Transnational Cooperation Discursive Strategies of the Anti-Gender Movement Can Civil Society Be Dangerous to Democracy? Conclusions Notes References Part 4 Post-Modern Extremisms?: Non-Violent Left-Wing, Feminist and Environmental Movements Since the 1970s 24 The Case of DiEM25: A Unique Transnational Political Movement in 21st-Century European Politics Introduction Exploring the DIEM25 Through the Existing Literature Defining DiEM25 as a “Populist Radical Left” Transnational Movement The Construction of a Transnational People of Europe Radical Left Ideology in Europe The Complexity of Being Both “Transnational” and “Populist” at the Same Time The Radical Left Being Closer to the Mainstream Parties in Europe The Inability to Offer a Clearly Distinctive Narrative That Can Compete With the Radical Right The Future of Populist Radical Left: Transnational Political Movements in Europe Notes References 25 Left-Wing Radicalism in Australia: The Complexities of the Radical Left’s (Non)Violent Struggle Against Fascism Introduction Reactive Antifascism? The Role of Violence Case Studies Study 1: The Offline Struggle of the Radical Left Against the Far Right Study 2: Australian Antifa Online Conclusion Notes References 26 Overthrowing the Capitalist Social Order: The Forgotten Extremism of the British Women’s Movement Introduction The WLM, Feminism and Non-Violence Methodology Histories of UBI and the Left The Women’s Movement and Demands for Economic Liberation Two Paths: Reform Or Revolution Conclusion Note Bibliography 27 Becoming Through Non-Violent Resistance: The Rise of Feminist Consciousness in Chile Introduction Theories of Consciousness-Raising and Becoming a Feminist Feminism and the Issue of Non-Violence Becoming a Feminist Through Non-Violent Resistance A Brief History of the Recent Feminist Movement in Chile Anti-neoliberalism at the Heart of the Movement Resisting Sate’s Violence Conclusion Notes References 28 The Degrowth Movement in France: From the Edges to the Centre of the Ecological Debate Introduction Intellectual Sources and Development of the Degrowth Movement The Ideology of the Degrowth Movement Strategies for a Degrowth Society Degrowth as a Non-Violent Radical Movement Conclusion Notes References 29 A Spatial Account of Non-Violent Environmental Extremism in Australia Introduction Non-violent Environmental Extremism A Case Study of Australian Environmental Movements Anti-protest Contemporary Environment Movements “Movements of Crisis” Distributed, Participatory Engagement Collective, Peaceful, Public Protest Environmentalism as Extremism Subverting the Spatialised Order Conclusions References 30 “Animals and the Earth Can’t Wait – Get Off Your Ass and Fight!”: Animal Liberation Front Vigilantism in the Era of ... Introduction Context History Organizational Structure Goals and Tactics Research Method Collection of Online Data Coding Vigilantism, Political Opportunity Structure and the ALF Vigilantism as a Response to Structural Injustice Political Opportunity Structure Analysis Who Is the Real Extremist? For the Wild “There’s No Justice, There’s Just Us” Conclusion Notes Bibliography 31 The Phoney War?: Radical Environmentalists, Animal Rights Activists and Direct Action Introduction Political Classifications: A Challenge The Mechanics of Environmental Activism: Action Not Words Direct Action as an Organising Principle A New Political Paradigm? The Ticking Clock Extinction Rebellion: Overview and Analysis Conclusions Note Bibliography 32 “The Great Refusal”: Radical Environmental Resistance Against Contemporary Ecological Breakdown Introduction History, Nature and Tactics of REA Movements Radical Environmentalism Disrupting the Present Methodology Results Post-anthropocentric Sensibilities Bodies On the Line Discussion “The Great Refusal”: Crying “No!” to the Existing Order Conclusion Notes References Conclusion: Key Findings, Lessons Learnt and Future Avenues of Research Introduction Non-violent Extremism(s) at a Glance Lessons Learnt Moving Beyond Islamist Extremism: Studying Non-Violent Extremism in the Round Extremism, Radicalisation and Terrorism as Overlapping Concepts Barriers to Political Violence Post-organisational Extremist Movements – Antechambers of Violent Extremism? Future Research Notes References Index "This Handbook provides the first in-depth analysis of non-violent extremism across different ideologies and geographic centres, a topic overshadowed until now by the political and academic focus on violent and jihadi extremism in the Global North. Whilst acknowledging the potentiality of non-violent extremism as a precursor to terrorism, this Handbook argues that non-violent extremism ought to be considered a stand-alone area of study. Focusing on Islamist, Buddhist, Hindu, far-right, far-left, environmentalist, and feminist manifestations, the Handbook discusses the ideological foundation of their 'war on ideas' against the prevailing socio-political and cultural systems in which they operate, as well as an empirical examination of their main claims and perspectives. This is supplemented by a truly global overview of non-violent extremist groups in Europe and the United States, but also in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East. The Handbook thus answers a call to decolonise knowledge that is especially prescient given both the complicity of non-violent extremists with authoritarian states and the dynamic of oppression towards more progressive groups in the Global South. The Handbook will appeal to those studying extremism, radicalisation, and terrorism and intersects several relevant disciplines, including social movement studies, political science, criminology, Islamic studies, and anthropology"-- Provided by publisher