Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity : Neighbours and Rivals

The foundation of the Sasanian Empire in Persia in AD 224 established a formidable new power on the Roman Empire's eastern frontier, and relations over the next four centuries proved turbulent. This book provides a chronological narrative of their relationship, supported by a substantial collection of translated sources illustrating structural patterns. The political goals of the two sides, their military confrontations and their diplomatic solutions are discussed, as well as the common interests between the two powers. Special attention is given to the situation of Arabia and Armenia, to economic aspects, the protection of the frontiers, the religious life in both empires and the channels of communication between East and West. Considerable attention is also paid to exploring the role played by the Sasanians in the history of the ancient Near East. The book will prove invaluable for students and non-specialists interested in late antiquity and early Byzantium. Half-title 3 Title 5 Copyright 6 Contents 7 Figures 10 Maps 11 Preface 13 Abbreviations 15 Introduction: West and East, friend and foe, counterpart and mirror image... 19 PART I Narrative 25 Chapter 1 Rome and Iran to the beginning of the third century AD 27 Chapter 2 Rome and the Sasanian Empire: A chronological survey 36 2.1 The third century: The origins of Sasanian interests in the West 36 2.2 The fourth century: The conflict escalates under Šāpūr II (309–79) 50 2.3 The fifth century: Détente at the Roman Eastern frontier 52 2.4 The sixth century: The Sasanians renew their expansionist policy in the West 55 2.5 The seventh century: M ight and decline of Sasanian power 62 PART II Sources and contexts 69 Chapter 1 Political goals 71 1: Territorial claims of the Sasanians against Rome 71 Herodian vi. 2.1–2 72 2: Succession to Achaemenid rule as programmatic foreign policy 74 The Šāpūr Inscription on the Ka 'ba-i Zardušt at Naqš-i Rustam (ŠKZ), § I The Parthian text 74 Chapter 2 Warfare 81 3: Sasanian armament and tactics 81 Heliodorus, Aethiopica IX.15.1–6 81 Maurice, Strategikon XI.I 82 Chapter 3 Military confrontations 88 3.1 The third century: Origins of Sasanian interests in the West 89 4: Earliest Roman–Sasanian confrontations (230–3) 89 Herodian VI.6.4–6 89 Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Severus Alexander 56.2 and 5–8 93 Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Severus Alexander 57.2–3 93 5: Šāpūr I (240–72) at war with Rome 95 The Šāpūr Inscription on the Ka 'ba-i Zardušt at Naqš-i Rustam (ŠKZ), §§ 6–7 The Parthian text 95 The Šāpūr Inscription on the Ka 'ba-i Zardušt at Naqš-i Rustam (ŠKZ), §§ 18–22 The Parthian text 98 6: Galerius defeats Narse in the year 298 102 Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 9.5–8 102 3.2 The fourth century: The conflict escalates under Šāpūr II (309–79) 106 7: Fighting during the reign of Constantius II (337–61) 106 Festus 27 107 8: Julian's Persian War (363) 108 Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV.7.1 and 3–6 109 Zosimus III.28.3–29.1 109 3.3 The fifth century: Détente at the Roman Eastern frontier 112 9: Arcadius (383–408) and Yazdgard I (399–420) 112 Procopius, De bello Persico I.2.6–10 112 Agathias IV.26.3–7 113 10: Persian confrontations with the Hephthalites 115 Procopius, De bello Persico I.3.1–5 115 11: The Sasanian monarchy loses and regains power 116 Procopius, De bello Persico I.5.1–3 116 3.4 The sixth century: The Sasanians renew their expansionist policy in the West 118 12: The first Sasanian–Byzantine War (502–32) 118 Joshua the Stylite 90 (309.12–310.3) 118 Marcellinus Comes a. 518 119 Procopius, De bello Persico I.11.6–11 and 29–30 122 13: The second Sasanian–Byzantine War (540–62) 124 Procopius, De bello Persico II.2.4–11 124 Procopius, De bello Persico II.5.1–4 125 Procopius, De bello Persico II.10.4–9 126 14: The third Sasanian–Byzantine War (572–91) and the Persian expansion into South Arabia 127 Theophylact Simocatta III.9.3–11 127 3.5 The seventh century: Might and decline of Sasanian power 133 15: The advance of Xusrō II Parvez (602–28) 133 Tabarī, Ta'rīh I 1001–2 133 Chapter 4 Diplomatic solutions 137 16: The peace treaty of 244 between Philip the Arab and Šāpūr I 137 The Šāpūr Inscription on the Ka'ba-i Zardušt at Naqš-i Rustam (ŠKZ) § 8 The Parthian texth 137 17: The peace treaty of 298 between Diocletian and Narse 140 Peter the Patrician, frg. 13–14 140 18: The peace treaty of 363 between Jovian and Šāpūr II 149 Ammianus Marcellinus XXV.7.9–14 149 19: The peace treaty of 422 between Theodosius II and Bahrām V Gōr 153 John Malalas XIV.23 (p. 364) 153 Procopius, De bello Persico I.2.11–15 154 20: The peace treaty of 562 between Justinian and Xusrō I Anōšarvān 156 Menander Protector, frg. 6.1 (FHG IV, frg. 11) 156 Negotiations 161 Territorial terms 162 Borders 163 Trade and customs duties 163 Fugitives of war, reparations, guarantee clauses 164 Conclusion 165 21: The peace treaty of 628 between Heraclius and Kavādh II Šerōē 166 Chronicon Paschale a. 628 166 Theophanes, Chronographia I, p. 327 (ed. C. de Boor) 168 Chapter 5 Arabia between the great powers 170 22: Hatra 170 Cassius Dio lXXX.3.1–2 172 23: Palmyra 173 Pliny, Naturalis Historia v. 88 173 Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Tyranni triginta 15.1–4 177 Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Tyranni triginta 30.4–11; 24–6 179 24: The Arab prince Imru'ulqais between Romans and Sasanians 181 Tabarš, Ta'rīh I 833–4 183 25: Proxy policy: Lahmids and Ghassanids 187 Procopius, De Bello Persico I.17.40–41 and 45–48 187 Procopius, De bello Persico II.1.1–5 189 Chapter 7 Religion: Christianity and Zoroastrianism 228 29: Religion and kingship in the Sasanian Empire 228 30: The Sasanian kings as patrons of Zoroastrianism 231 Kartēr's inscriptions at Sar-Mašhad, at Naqš-i Rustam, on the Ka'ba-i Zardušt and at Naqš-i Rajab, pp. 405–10 (ed. Back) 231 Kartēr's inscriptions at Sarz-Mašhad, at Naqš-i Rustam, on the Ka'ba-i Zardušt and at Naqš-i Rajab, pp. 405–10 (ed. Back) 231 The Šāpūr Inscription on the Ka'ba-i Zardušt at Naqš-i Rustam (ŠKZ) § 51 The Parthian text 232 Kartēr's inscriptions at Sar-Mašhad, at Naqš-i Rustam, on the Ka'ba-i Zardušt and at Naqš-i Rajab, pp. 414–16 (ed. Back) 233 Kartēr's inscriptions at Sar-Mašhad, at Naqš-i Rustam, on the Ka'ba-i Zardušt and at Naqš-i Rajab, pp. 419–28 (ed. Back) 233 31: From Diocletian to Constantine – Religious change in the West and the consequences for Roman–Sasanian relations 234 Diocletian's Edict against the Manichaeans, 297 (or 302): Collatio legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum XV.3.1–8 234 Eusebius, Vita Constantini IV.8 and IV.13 237 Martyrologium of Mar Simon, Acta martyrum et sanctorum, ed. P. Bedjan II 135–6 238 32: The situation of the Persian Christians during the reign of Yazgard I (399–420) 239 Socrates VII.8.1–20 239 Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica V.39.1–6 241 33: Religion and politics during the sixth and seventh centuries 243 Menander Protector, frg. 6.1 (= FHG IV, frg. 11) 243 Theophylact Simocatta V.14.1–10 245 Tabarī, Ta'rīh I 1002 248 Chapter 8 Emperor and 'King of kings' 250 34: Concepts of 'legitimate rule' and the 'family of kings' 250 Ammianus Marcellinus XVII.5.3 and 10 250 Theophylact Simocatta IV.4.7–13 254 Theophylact Simocatta IV.11.2–11 256 Theophylact Simocatta IV.13.7–21 257 Theophylact Simocatta IV.14.2 258 Chapter 9 Exchange of information between West and East 260 35: Diplomacy and espionage 263 Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, De ceremoniis aulae byzantinae 89–90 (Reiske pp. 398–410) 263 Procopius, De Bello Gothico IV.15.1–2 and 19–20 267 Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII.5.1–4 269 Agathias II.27.8 and IV.30.2–4 271 36: Deportations: Enforced resettlement of prisoners 272 Chronicle of Se'ert, PO IV 220–1 273 Tabarī, Ta'rīh I 827–8 273 Martyrology of Pusai under Šāpūr II, Acta martyrum et sanctorum, ed. P. Bedjan, II 208–10 278 Procopius, De bello Persico II.14.1–4 279 Tabarī, Ta'rīh I 898 280 37: Mutual cultural interest 281 Agathias II.28.1–2 281 The Book of Deeds of Xusrō I Anōšarvān; Ibn Miskawayh, Tagārib al-umam, p. 206, l.2 – p. 207, l. 7 282 Appendix 1 Lists of Sasanian Kings and Roman emperors 284 Appendix 2 Chronological table 286 Appendix 3 Glossary 291 Bibliography 300 Index of sources 344 Index of translated sources 350 Index of names 353 Index of place names 357 General index 361 The Foundation Of The Sasanian Empire In Ad 224 Established A Formidable New Power On The Roman Empire's Eastern Frontier, And Relations Over The Next Four Centuries Proved Turbulent. This Book Provides A Chronological Narrative Of Their Relationship, Supported By A Collection Of Translated Sources Illustrating Important Themes And Structural Patterns. The Political Goals Of The Two Sides, Their Military Confrontations And Their Diplomatic Solutions Are Discussed, As Well As The Common Interests Between The Two Powers. Special Attention Is Given To The Situation Of Arabia And Armenia, To Economic Aspects, The Protection Of The Frontiers, The Religious Life In Both Empires And The Channels Of Communication Between East And West. In Its Chronological Scope, The Study Explores The Role Played By The Sasanians In The History Of The Ancient Near East. The Book Will Prove Invaluable For Students And Non-specialists Interested In Late Antiquity And Early Byzantium, And It Will Be Equally Useful For Specialists On These Subjects.--jacket. West And East, Friend And Foe, Counterpart And Mirror Image -- Rome And Iran To The Beginning Of The Third Century Ad -- Rome And The Sasanian Empire : A Chronological Survey -- Political Goals -- Warfare -- Military Confrontations -- The Diplomatic Solutions -- Arabia Between The Great Powers -- Shared Interests : Continuing Conflicts -- Religion : Christianity And Zoroastrianism -- Emperor And King Of Kings -- Exchange Of Information Between West And East -- Appendix 1 : Lists Of Sasanian Kings And Roman Emperors -- Appendix 2 : Chronological Table. Beate Dignas And Engelbert Winter. Includes Bibliographical References And Index.