Roman Imperial Artillery: Outranging the Enemies of the Empire, 3rd Edition

Греческие и римские торсионные катапульты были самыми мощными ракетными проекторами в западном мире с момента их изобретения в IV веке до нашей эры до XI века нашей эры. Питаемые энергией, запасенной в натянутых и скрученных веревочных пружинах, они превосходили лучников, пращников и все другие ракетные пусковые установки. Проследив свое греческое происхождение, Римская императорская артиллерия описывает машины, использовавшиеся со времен Суллы и Цезаря, римские улучшения в их конструкции и мощности, а также их важность в защите Римской империи. Полноразмерные реконструкции, выполненные в сотрудничестве с инженерами Леном Морганом и Томом Фили, прочно основаны на авторских переработанных изданиях текстов греческих и римских инженеров, последних археологических находках и свидетельствах рельефных скульптур. В этом пересмотренном издании анализируются новые замечательные находки на границе с Рейном в Нидерландах и других местах. Находка рамы катапульты в Германии в 1999 году позволяет точно реконструировать стандартный ранний имперский стрелок-болт, который использовался во время вторжения Веспасиана в Великобританию в 43 году нашей эры против городищ в Мейден-Касл и Ход-Хилл. Расследуются осадные лагеря в Бернсварк-Хилл, Дамфрисшир. Проверяется дальность и точность, а технические испытания демонстрируют ударную мощь этого грозного и долгоживущего оружия.Алан Уйлкинс изучал класику в Коровском гимназии Ланкэстеру и Изухал этот предправить в Колледании Эммануэль в Кембридже, перецализовании на древом и ареолегиях под ручным предлогом Тойнби и А. Г. Вудхед. Он пропел нескольколет, проводят рэскопию римских вонних и градданских объектах в Великобритани, и в эти 17 лет быльполим полеником. Она Читала Лекция по греческому и римскому цивилу и облилу, что он из-за того, что он подавал словаря, приправил его к другому, Ливлю и Римскому Иакту. После 30 лет переплюнул кого-то другого Он перепринил попопытку сохранителю динамии иследования Эрики по этому предместью. Ону являю чл Greek and Roman torsion catapults were the most powerful missile projectors in the western world from their invention in the 4th century BC to the 11th century AD. Powered by the energy stored in tensioned and twisted rope springs, they outranged archers, slingers and all other missile launchers. After tracing their Greek origins, Roman Imperial Artillery describes the machines used from the time of Sulla and Caesar, the Roman improvements in their design and power, and their importance in the defence of the Roman Empire. Full-size reconstructions, made in collaboration with engineers Len Morgan and Tom Feeley, are based firmly on the author’s revised editions of the texts of the Greek and Roman engineers, the latest archaeological finds and the evidence of relief sculptures. This revised edition analyses remarkable new finds from the Rhine frontier in the Netherlands and elsewhere. The 1999 find of a catapult frame in Germany allows an accurate reconstruction of the standard early Imperial bolt-shooter, as used in the AD 43 invasion of Britain by Vespasian against hillforts at Maiden Castle and Hod Hill. The siege-camps at Burnswark Hill, Dumfriesshire are investigated. Range and accuracy are examined, and technical tests demonstrate the strike power of these formidable and long-lived weapons. Alan Wilkins studied Classics at Lancaster Royal Grammar School and read the subject at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, specialising in ancient history and archaeology under Professors Jocelyn Toynbee and A. G. Woodhead. He spent several years excavating on Roman military and civilian sites in Britain, and was a field assistant to Sir Ian Richmond for 17 years. He lectured on Greek and Roman Civilisation for Liverpool University’s Extra-Mural Department, and was one of the pioneers of the JACT evidence-based teaching of Greek and Roman history. After 30 years teaching Classics at Woodbridge School, Merchant Taylors School, Crosby and Annan Academy, he turned to the subject of Greek and Roman artillery, following the tragic early death of his friend Dr Eric Marsden. He has attempted to maintain the momentum of Eric’s research into the subject. He is a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Roman,Artillery,Ballista,Stone Thrower Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Contents Page 7 List of Figures 11 Figure 161 - The Solignac hunting relief 235 Figure 160 - The fragmentary Roman hunting relief from St Marcel 234 Figure 159 - A battery of twelve bolt-shooting and one stone-throwing catapults, June 2013 227 Figure 158 - Tom Feeley’s inswinging version in three positions (photographs: Mark Hatch) 226 Figure 157 - Tom Feeley’s quarter-scale inward swinging Hatra catapult 225 Figure 156 - Hatra inswinging designs: (left) Aitor Iriarte’s two versions of the Hatra catapult. (right) Mike Lewis’ inswinging cheiroballistra. 224 Figure 155 - Mike Lewis’ models 224 Figure 154 - Martin McAree’s graphs of the relative performances of inswinger and outswinger 223 Figure 153 - The Morgan-Wilkins outward swinging Hatra catapult 220 Figure 152 - The author’s suggested spring-frame design of the Hatra catapult. The bronze washers. (photographs: Diewulf Baatz) 219 Figure 151 - Baatz’s diagram of the Hatra frame 218 Figure 150 - Mosul Museum’s strange reconstruction of the Hatra catapult (photograph: Mary Desbruslais) 217 Figure 149 - Excavation photo of the Hatra catapult (photograph: W.I. Al-Salihi, Directorate-General of Antiquities, Baghdad.) 215 Figure 148 - The Traction trebuchet (Wikipedia Commons) 214 Figure 147 - The Morgan-Wilkins onager 213 Figure 146 - Two modern reconstructions of the onager 212 Figure 145 - Ms diagram of a one-arm stone-thrower on a siege tower 210 Figure 144. High Rochester ballistaria inscription (after Richmond). 208 Figure 143 - A two librae Vitruvian ballista being assembled by a team of legionaries (photograph: the Roman Military Research Society) 207 Figure 142 - The BBC one talent ballista launching the final ball (photograph: Margery Wilkins) 202 Figure 141 - ‘Troops’ passing through the centre gateway, thirteen abreast. (photograph: John Reid) 201 Figure 140 - Trajan’s Column Scene LXVI. An arch strut bolt-shooter on a log emplacement 199 Figure 139. The 2015 excavations on Burnswark Hill 195 Figure 138 - Carol standing in the South Camp’s deep recut ditch west of the centre gateway 194 Figure 137 - Carol van Driel-Murray at the centre one of the Three Brethren catapult mounds 194 Figure 136 - Excavation trenches 1-5 and the distribution of lead signals from 2013 to 2017 193 Figure 135 - Groups of lead sling bullets found in Trench 5 of the 2016 excavations and in the North Camp 192 Figure 134 - The Three Brethren and the 2016 trenches behind the rampart 191 Figure 133 - Burnswark missiles (photograph: John Reid) 190 Figure 132 - Burnswark sling bullets, arrowheads and a Trajan’s Column stone thrower and slinger 189 Figure 131 - The southern Roman camp, Burnswark, looking south (photograph: © Crown Copyright: HES) 188 Figure 130 - The 2016 Trench 4 cut into the back of the South Camp’s north west rampart (photograph: Andrew Nicholson) 186 Figure 129. Ballista ball from the 2015 excavation Trench 2 184 Figure 128 - The Roman camps and hillfort from the north east (photograph: © Crown Copyright: HES) 182 Figure 127 - Burnswark hillfort and Roman camps, Dumfries and Galloway (from Jobey 1977-8 Figure 1) 181 Figure 126 - Burnswark hillfort and the Roman South Camp (Reproduced with the permission of Cambridge University Collection of Aerial Photography © Copyright reserved.) 179 Figure 125 - Burnswark Hill from the SE, from close to the Eaglesfield crossing of the M74 (photograph: the author) 179 Figure 124 - Qasr Ibrim tanged boltheads. 175 Figure 123 - The Kandaxe ball and Message for Hitler on a WW2 shell 174 Figure 122 - Clusters of ballista balls on the West Rampart 173 Figure 121 - Hans Barnard’s size analysis. The seven British Museum balls 172 Figure 120 - Ink writing on ballista balls 171 Figure 119 - Ballista balls in South Rampart Street (photograph: McDonald Institute Cambridge) 170 Figure 118 - Map of the Nile. Airphoto of the site 170 Figure 117 - Qasr Ibrim before the Aswan Dam 168 Figure 116 - Stone missiles at the Masada Exhibition (photograph: Eric Marsden) 165 Figure 115 - Ballista stones and sling shot in a long line on the former river bed close to the De Meern fort. 163 Figure 114 - Philon’s defence against the one talent ballista 163 Figure 113 - Cutting a one talent stone ball 161 Figure 112 - The Morgan-Wilkins two librae catapult in action 160 Figure 111 - The BBC one talent Vitruvian ballista (photograph: the author) 158 Figure 110 - Cross-section of table, ladder and slider 157 Figure 109 - The bowstring belt 156 Figure 108 - Trigger and mounting plate 156 Figure 107 - The author’s model ballista 155 Figure 106 - The crossbars and the table 154 Figure 105 - Diagram of the ballista framework 152 Figure 104 - Crossbeams 151 Figure 103 - Ballista model made for Eric Marsden (photograph: the author) 151 Figure 102 - Heron’s ballista diagram 150 Figure 101 - Vitruvius’ plated washers 149 Figure 100 - Heron’s rhombus diagram 148 Figure 99 - Ballista half spring-frame 148 Figure 98 - Len Morgan’s two ballista reconstructions 145 Figure 97 - Trajan’s Column: forward projecting beams – the sliders 144 Figure 96 - Trajan’s Column: projections on the outside of the field-frame covers (photographs: the author) 143 Figure 95 - Penetration tests of bolts (photographs: the author) 142 Figure 94 - Tom Feeley’s framework. Impact of bolt on lorica segmentata 141 Figure 93 - Two reconstructions of the cheiroballistra (photographs: the author) 141 Figure 92 - The Arm ‘sleeves’ 140 Figure 91 - Adding extra torsion to Len Morgan’s Lyon size catapult (photograph: Margery Wilkins) 139 Figure 90 - The Lyon size of arch strut catapult: Tom Feeley’s version 139 Figure 89 - Trajan’s Column: ballista on cart (photograph of the Column: the author) 138 Figure 88 - Reconstruction of the Elenovo crank handle-handspike (photographs: Tom Feeley) 137 Figure 87 - The Elenovo crank handle and handspike (illustration from Kayumov and Minchev 2010) 136 Figure 86 - Reconstruction of the cheiroballistra 135 Figure 85 - The Cupid Gem 135 Figure 84 – The author’s version of the cheiroballistra frame parts 134 Figure 83 - Left hand end of the reconstructed cheiroballistra 133 Figure 82 - The position of the Ladder on the Field-frames. See text below (photograph: the author) 131 Figure 81 - Tom Feeley’s version of the alternative wood encased Arms (photograph: Tom Feeley) 131 Figure 80 - The Elenovo arm (photograph: Kayumov and Minchev) 130 Figure 79 - Codices M and V diagrams of the Arms (diagrams after Wescher) 130 Figure 78 - Reconstruction of the main frame. The Ladder 127 Figure 77 - Codex P Arch and Ladder diagram 126 Figure 76 - The Cheiroballistra Arch 125 Figure 75 - Orşova iron Arch strut (photograph: Dietwulf Baatz) 125 Figure 74 - Kambestria from Elenovo and Sala (Morocco) 124 Figure 73 - The Elenovo Kambestrion (photographs: Kayumov and Minchev) 123 Figure 72 – Lyon and Orşova Field-frames 123 Figure 71 - Junction of the Ladder tenons and the Field-frames (models and photographs: the author) 121 Figure 70 - Codex M’s Field-frames and Heron’s ballista diagram 120 Figure 69 - Field-frame replicas and Gornea example 119 Figure 68 - Cheiroballistra trigger mechanism 118 Figure 67 - Operating the cheiroballistra 117 Figure 66b - The Cheiroballistra manuscript 116 Figure 66a - The Cheiroballistra manuscript 115 Figure 65 - Slow-motion film of a cheiroballistra bolt penetrating a large melon 114 Figure 64 - The horrific strike effect of this bolt on ballistic gel simulating human or animal flesh 113 Figure 63 - Dura Europos bolt replica 112 Figure 62 - Misfire (still frame from video: the author) 111 Figure 61 - Aiming the three-span scorpio and the cheiroballistra (photographs: the author and Margery Wilkins) 110 Figure 60 - The author’s first interpretation of the Cheiroballistra manuscript, built in 1991 106 Figure 59 - Two carroballistae on Trajan’s Column 105 Figure 58 - Eric Marsden’s cheiroballistra 104 Figure 57 - Trajan’s Column catapults 103 Figure 56 - Victor Prou’s cheiroballistra (from Prou 1877 Figures 47 and 16) 103 Figure 55 - Catapult scene on Trajan’s Column, Rome (cast in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London) 101 Figure 54 - William Newton’s version of the rope tensioning frame described by Vitruvius and Heron 100 Figure 53 - Artillery boltheads 98 Figure 52 - Bolt strike on chainmail and helmet 96 Figure 51 - Bolt damage to lorica segmentata 96 Figure 50 - Qasr Ibrim foreshaft and bolthead 95 Figure 49 - Two scorpion reconstructions 94 Figure 48 – Bolt 211 (top): narrow glue or paint bands at the rear end. Bolt 416 (bottom) with incomplete shaft. 93 Figure 47 - The complete number 211 bolt as conserved 93 Figure 46 - Scorpion stand 92 Figure 45 - The Cremona battle-shield 91 Figure 44 - Catapult on the Altar of Zeus, Pergamon. Scorpion curved arms (photograph: Margery Wilkins) 90 Figure 43 - Scorpion case, slider and winch (photographs: the author) 89 Figure 42 - Frame wedge system on a scorpio maior 87 Figure 41 - Carlisle catapult find 84 Figure 40 - Reconstruction of the Xanten-Wardt scorpion 83 Figure 39 - The Xanten-Wardt Report’s box support (after Schalles 2010, 175 Figure 5) 82 Figure 38 - Operating Xanten-Wardt scorpions 82 Figure 37 - Xanten-Wardt missing parts (photographs: Maarten Dolmans) 80 Figure 36 - Xanten-Wardt frame 78 Figure 34 - Catapult washers (diagrams after Dietwulf Baatz. Washer photograph: the author) 76 Figure 33 - The Caminreal (Teruel) iron frame reconstructed 75 Figure 32 - The corrected Ampurias display 74 Figure 31 - The Ampurias frame as published 73 Figure 30 - Schramm demonstrating his ballista to the Kaiser (photograph: Saalburg Museum) 71 Figure 29 - Bolt leaving a Xanten-Wardt scorpion 68 Figure 28 - Close range impact with the Polybolos (photograph: the author) 65 Figure 27 - Scorpion and Hod Hill missiles 63 Figure 26 - Vespasian’s plan of attack 62 Figure 25 - Reconstruction of an Iron Age hut 61 Figure 24 - Vespasian’s possible plan of attack – crossing the ditches 61 Figure 23 - Filming at Hod Hill for Channel 5, June 2012 59 Figure 22 - Plan of boltheads targeting the chieftain’s huts and enclosure 57 Figure 21 - Marsden’s three-span at Maiden Castle: a television first 56 Figure 20 - Artillery victim at Maiden Castle 54 Figure 19 – Boltheads and sling bullets 53 Figure 18 - Missiles from Caesar’s siege found at Alésia (Mont Auxois in central France) 53 Figure 17 - Alésia 52 Figure 16 - Sulla’s artillery 50 Figure 15 - Sulla’s artillery: the Pompeii ‘target’ (Mike Burns. From JRMES 14/15, 1-10) 49 Figure 14 - Carthage stone shot 47 Figure 13 - The giant BBC ballista, the one talent stone-thrower created for the BBC programme ‘Building the Impossible’. 45 Figure 12 - Marsden’s three-span torsion bolt-shooter (Photograph: Eric Marsden) 44 Figure 11 - Catapult winches 42 Figure 10 - Codex P drawing of a gastraphetes (photograph: Wikipedia commons) 40 Figure 9 - Testing a gastraphetes 39 Figure 8 - The stomach bow 38 Figure 7 - Scythian archer. Composite bows 37 Figure 6 - Schramm’s fine reconstruction of the polybolos (photo: Dietwulf Baatz) 35 Figure 5 - The author’s version of Dionysius of Alexandria’s polybolos 34 Figure 4 - The spring frame and arms of a reconstructed Xanten-Wardt scorpion bolt-shooter 30 Figure 3 - A line of ballista balls and the first complete scorpio bolt from the old bed of the Rhine at De Meern, in the Netherlands (Diagram and CT scan: Erik Graafstal) 27 Figure 2 - The combined crank handle and handspike from Elenovo, Bulgaria 26 Figure 1 - Technical tests at Piddington Roman villa site 25 Acknowledgements 17 The First Edition 17 The Second and Third Editions 18 The author 21 Preface 22 Archaeological discoveries and recent research 23 Glossary 29 Weights and measures 31 Weights and measures 31 Vitruvius’ list of stone shot weights and corresponding spring-hole diameters (Based on Marsden 1971, 198-199) 31 Introduction 33 Greek origins 36 The gastraphetes (‘stomach-bow’): a semi-robotic archer 38 The introduction of the winch and stand 40 Torsion-powered artillery 43 The menace of the new weapon 46 Sulla’s artillery in sieges: the Pompeii ‘target’ 48 Caesar’s artillery 51 The bolt-shooter: accuracy, range and effects 54 Maiden Castle, Dorset 54 Hod Hill, Dorset. A bolt-shooters’ ‘target’ 56 The palisaded enclosure and Huts 36a and 37 58 Which bolt-shooters were used? 58 Vespasian’s battle plan 59 The evidence of the boltheads 62 Artillery platforms (tribunalia) at Hod Hill 64 Accuracy 64 Range 65 Reconstructing the Roman bolt-shooter 70 Archaeological evidence for the design of the Roman torsion bolt-shooter 73 The curious case of the Ampurias frame 73 The Caminreal iron frame plating 74 Catapult Washers 75 The Xanten-Wardt smaller scorpion (scorpio minor) 75 The identity of the Xanten-Wardt catapult 79 The size formula for bolt-shooters 83 Constructing the spring-frame 85 The plating covering the spring-frame 86 Importing metal plates 86 The arms 88 The case and the slider (i.e. the stock) 88 The trigger assembly 89 The winch box 89 The stand and universal joint 89 The standard bolts 91 A complete catapult bolt from the Rhine frontier 92 The Qasr Ibrim foreshaft and iron bodkin heads 95 Penetration of different types of body armour 96 The rope springs and the bolt-shooter’s performance 96 Fitting, tensioning and twisting the rope springs 99 The new design: the metal frame arch strut cheiroballistra/manuballista 101 Eric Marsden’s identification of the machine 104 The transition from scorpio to manuballista 107 The cheiroballistra’s all-metal spring frame: appraisal of this radically different design 108 Improved field of view 109 Faster speed of rewind and consequent increased rate of missile launch 110 Elimination of ricocheting bolts 111 The new design of bolt, with aerodynamic and horrific wounding properties 112 The Cheiroballistra manuscripts 114 Kanones duo (two boards) i.e. Case and Slider 114 Kleisis (trigger mechanism) 118 Kambestria (Field-frames) 119 Pittaria (Pi-brackets) 120 The Field-frame Rings 122 Kamarion (Arch) 124 Klimakion (Ladder) 126 Kulindroi chalkoi (bronze Cylinders/Washers) and Kanonia (Bars) 128 Konoeide duo (two cone-shaped parts) i.e. Arms 129 Missing parts 131 Ease of dismantling and repair 133 Winch and stand. Double ratchet handles. 134 Tactical positioning of the manuballista 137 The protective metal spring-frame covers 138 The arm ‘sleeves’ 140 Did the arch strut design have inward swinging arms? The evidence of Trajan’s Column. 142 Deciphering the manuscripts: Vitruvius’ ballista 145 The two half-spring frames 147 The washers 149 The framework holding the half-springs and the ‘inward-swinging arms’ theory 149 The Ladder and the Table 154 The trigger 154 Bowstring problems 154 ‘Building the Impossible’: the BBC ballista 157 The arms 159 The stand and the angle of elevation 159 The stone missiles: range and effects 161 A ballista and sling ‘target’ on the Rhine frontier 163 Masada AD 73-74 165 Qasr Ibrim: artillery in defence. Inscribed stone shot 168 Artillery in action in the field: Arrian’s battle plan 177 Burnswark Roman camps and native hillfort, Dumfriesshire 179 Evidence for the abandonment of British hillforts 183 The dating of the site’s features and evidence from the Nicholson and Reid excavations 185 The missile bombardment 190 The collapse/demolition of the hillfort’s rampart 195 Occupation of the hillfort after the collapse/demolition of the ramparts 196 Discoveries of sling bullets outside the South Camp 196 Evidence suggesting that the camps were intended for repeated use 197 The date(s) of the missile launchings 198 The Three Brethren as artillery platforms 198 Training in missile attack and in rapid assault under covering fire 201 Covering fire 202 Interpreting the missile bombardment 203 To summarise 204 High Rochester ballistaria, Northumberland 208 The last stone-throwers 210 The one-arm catapult 210 The traction trebuchet 213 The Hatra stone-thrower and the inward-swinging arms theory 215 The Hatra catapult, the Vitruvian ballista’s successor? 216 The inward-swinging arms theory 221 The Morgan-Feeley Hatra quarter scale models as inward and outward swinging 224 Survival 229 The Roman achievement 230 Future search and research 232 The Roman origin of the mediaeval revolving-nut crossbow release 234 Review of 2021 TV film on Burnswark Hill, ‘Massacre on Hadrian’s Wall’ 237 A programme for the American Smithsonian Channel and Channel Five in Britain. 237 Sources and references to artillery 242 Accounts of Roman artillery in action 243 Select bibliography 243 Museums and sites 248 Museums 248 Sites in Britain 251 Websites and TV programmes 252 Where the reconstructed catapults described in this book can be seen 253