Roles of Skeletal Muscle in Organ Development: Prenatal Interdependence among Cells, Tissues, and Organs (Advances in Anatomy, Embryology and Cell Biology)

Muscle is the only tissue of the four basic types that make the body that can be completely ablated while allowing fetal survival. This book is a result of 25 years of research employing engineered mouse fetuses with no skeletal muscle, a model system that provides a unique opportunity to study body development holistically. A systematic anatomical analysis of such fetuses have shown that several anatomical locations are affected by the absence of the skeletal muscle. This book contains a summarized description of affected anatomical locations such as the alveolar lung epithelium, motor neurons and giant pyramidal cells in the CNS, cholinergic amacrine cells of the retina, and type I hair cells of the crista ampullaris. Several specific bioinformatics and systems biology interventions are also described. The book provides an update on skeletal muscle development, musculoskeletal developmental interactions, trophic relationships between the skeletal muscle and the motor neurons, mechanics of lung development, functional development of two special senses, eye and ear, and finally, skeletal muscle-related reasons for human fetal akinesia and its consequences. This volume in the Advances in Anatomy, Embryology and Cell Biology series stresses the need to think about the developing body and its organs in terms of their mutual interdependence, and to think about diseases, such as pulmonary hypoplasia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or cleft palate, in terms of that interdependence. Directed to developmental biologists, neuroscientists, tissue engineers and health professionals, this book exposes the ideas of interorgan communication and interdependence in homeostasis and disease. Foreword 6 Levels of Interactions 6 Postnatal Functional Interactions 6 Embryonic Functional Interactions 6 Embryonic (Developmental) Inductions 7 A Continuum of Epigenetic Interactions 7 This Book 8 References 9 Preface 12 Contents 13 About the Editor 14 Chapter 1: Skeletal Muscle ́s Role in Prenatal Inter-organ Communication: A Phenogenomic Study with Qualitative Citation Analys... 15 1.1 Introduction 15 1.2 Mechanical Role of Muscle in Lung Development 18 1.3 Role of Muscle in Motor Neuron Development 21 1.4 Role of Muscle in Development of the Skeleton 22 1.5 Role of Muscle in Development of the Special Senses 24 1.6 Future Directions 25 References 28 Chapter 2: Roles of Skeletal Muscle in Development: A Bioinformatics and Systems Biology Overview 34 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Muscle Genomics 35 2.2.1 Combined Analysis of Affymetrix Microarray Data 36 2.3 Modern Technologies for Generating Omics Data 39 2.3.1 RNA Expression 39 2.3.2 Single-cell Sequencing 42 2.3.3 Other Resources for Drawing Inference from Genomics Data 45 2.4 Omics Strategies for Assessing Function 45 2.4.1 RNA Interference 45 2.4.2 Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats 47 2.4.3 CRISPR Applications for Phenotype Characterization 48 2.5 Spatial Biology 49 2.6 Introduction to Network Biology 50 2.6.1 Biological Networks 50 2.6.2 Network Theory, Analysis and Concepts 51 2.7 Analytic Methods to Infer Biology from Data 53 2.7.1 Multi-omics 53 2.7.2 Artificial Intelligence 54 2.8 Applications and Resources 55 2.8.1 Databases 56 2.8.2 Applications, Tools and Algorithms 57 2.9 Conclusions 58 References 59 Chapter 3: Overview of Head Muscles with Special Emphasis on Extraocular Muscle Development 69 3.1 Background 69 3.2 Head Versus Trunk Muscle Development 72 3.3 Cardiopharyngeal Mesoderm and Pharyngeal (Branchial) Arch Muscles 75 3.3.1 Cardiopharyngeal Mesoderm 75 3.3.2 Pharyngeal Arch Muscle Development 76 3.4 Eye Muscle Development 79 3.4.1 Overview Eye Development 79 3.4.2 Gene Regulatory Mechanisms during Eye Development 83 References 85 Chapter 4: Building a Co-ordinated Musculoskeletal System: The Plasticity of the Developing Skeleton in Response to Muscle Con... 93 4.1 Interdependence of the Musculature and the Skeleton: The Importance of Mechanical Regulation 94 4.2 Interdependence of Muscle and Skeletal Tissues in the Developing Vertebrate Limb: The Mechanical Response 95 4.2.1 Effects of Immobilisation on Joint Formation 98 4.2.2 Ossification 102 4.2.3 Size and Shape of Skeletal Elements 103 4.2.4 Tendon Maturation 105 4.3 Secondary Cartilage Formation: Sculpting Functional Shape 107 4.4 Effects of Reduced Movement on the Spine 108 4.5 The Mechanisms that Transduce the Effects of Muscle Movement in the Developing Skeleton 110 4.6 Implications for Future Work 112 References 114 Chapter 5: Upper and Lower Motor Neurons and the Skeletal Muscle: Implication for Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) 123 5.1 Introduction 125 5.2 Upper and Lower MN Development 125 5.2.1 Upper MNs 125 5.2.2 Lower MNs 126 5.3 Developmental Relationship Between Lower MNs and Skeletal Muscle 128 5.4 Motor Neuron Diseases 130 5.5 Involvement of Skeletal Muscle in ALS Pathogenesis 131 5.6 Conclusions 135 References 136 Chapter 6: Mechanics of Lung Development 142 6.1 Introduction 142 6.2 Stages of Lung Development 144 6.3 FBMs and Pulmonary Hypoplasia in Genetically Engineered Mice 145 6.4 Differentiation of Pulmonary Epithelia and the Mechanical Forces 149 6.5 Effects of Mechanical Forces on Lung Growth and Cell Differentiation 152 6.6 Role of Fetal Respiratory Musculature, the Diaphragm and the Intercostal Musculature 153 6.7 Conclusion 154 References 156 Chapter 7: Angular and Linear Accelerations, Ear, and the Skeletal Muscle 162 7.1 Introduction 162 7.2 Microtia/Aural Atresia and Other Congenital External Ear Anomalies 164 7.3 Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo 165 7.4 Conclusion 165 References 166