Retracing the aurochs : history, morphology, and ecology of an extinct wild ox

This book tells a comprehensive story of the extinct aurochs (Bos primigenius), the wild ancestor of our domestic cattle, and of what is still left of it. Not only until its extinction in 1627, the aurochs, because of its appearance and nature, had left a deep impression on people, but also afterwards this bovine species, due to scanty information and questionable interpretations, has been subject to discussion and mystification. In spite of a growing amount of individual scientific studies, no exhaustive overview on this subject has ever been made. After many years of research at the Wageningen University, the existing information as well as numerous new or unused data from the fields of archaeozoology, history, philology, modern and palaeo-ecology have been brought together by the author to build up a complete picture of the physical appearance, the way of life and the environment of the aurochs. Directly related to the ecology of the aurochs is the ongoing discussion concerning the supposed impact the large herbivores render on forest structure, as well as on the appearance of the natural landscapes they live in. Here, too, the existing and new surprising data from various fields of science are compiled to elucidate this problem. In addition, due attention is paid to the origin, description and evaluation of the so-called bred-back aurochs (Heck cattle), used in several places for educational and nature conservation purposes. Only now can Heck cattle be properly compared with the original aurochs prototype. The book is addressed to specialists in theriology (interested in the archaeology, ecology, morphology and history of mammals), palaeoecology (because of the herbivore-impact debate concerning the former natural landscape), forest ecology and European nature conservation, to cattle breeders and other cattle lovers. Contents......Page 8 Preface......Page 12 Word of thanks......Page 15 1. Introduction......Page 18 2. Sources for aurochs research......Page 26 3.1. The scientific name......Page 32 3.2. Evolution......Page 33 3.3. Systematics......Page 37 Summary......Page 41 4. Distribution area......Page 42 North Africa......Page 43 Asia......Page 45 Europe......Page 49 4.1. Occurrence inside the outermost boundaries......Page 51 Summary......Page 53 5.1. Outside Europe......Page 54 5.2. Inside Europe......Page 56 5.2.1. The last living area......Page 65 5.2.2. Causes of extinction......Page 73 Summary......Page 79 6.1. Etymology......Page 80 6.2. Toponyms......Page 82 6.3. The aurochs-European bison confusion......Page 84 6.4. Nature and symbolism......Page 89 Summary......Page 98 7. Characteristics of the aurochs......Page 101 Comparison of the Pleistocene and the Holocene aurochs......Page 102 The Holocene aurochs......Page 106 The height of the withers......Page 110 Summary......Page 120 7.2. Horns......Page 121 Size......Page 122 Colour......Page 124 Shape......Page 125 Position......Page 132 7.3. The colour of the fur......Page 136 Pictures and descriptions......Page 138 Genetic aspects of the fur colour......Page 148 Comparison with related bovine species......Page 151 Reconstruction of the fur colour of the aurochs......Page 153 Hooves......Page 156 Udder......Page 159 Fur......Page 161 Summary......Page 165 7.5. Summarising table......Page 166 8. Changes resulting from domestication......Page 167 Summary......Page 175 Introduction......Page 176 Insects......Page 178 Pollen research......Page 182 Roman writers......Page 193 Frontier forests......Page 199 The last Central-European wilderness......Page 201 Summary......Page 213 9.1.2. Food......Page 214 Summary......Page 232 9.1.3. The habitat of the aurochs......Page 233 Other bovine species......Page 242 Reconstruction of the aurochs habitat......Page 246 Seasonal migration......Page 258 9.2. Predation......Page 260 9.3. Social structure and reproduction......Page 265 Introduction......Page 272 Areas comparable to Europe......Page 277 Population density of wild cattle......Page 281 The effects of feeding: forest elephants, European bison and others......Page 287 Wood Buffalo National Park: A case study......Page 298 Discussion......Page 303 Summary......Page 320 10.1. Cattle breeds......Page 324 Summary......Page 330 10.2. The breeding-back experiment......Page 331 Summary......Page 345 10.3. Evaluation of the breeding-back experiment......Page 346 Description of Heck cattle......Page 351 Summary......Page 359 11.1. The animal......Page 361 11.2. Effects and landscape......Page 370 11.3. The animal in the landscape......Page 374 Summary of conclusions and recommendations......Page 381 Appendix......Page 384 References......Page 388 Register......Page 426