روش‌شناسی تحقیق در علوم پزشکی و زیستی

Providing easy-to-access information, this unique sourcebook covers the wide range of topics that a researcher must be familiar with in order to become a successful experimental scientist. Perfect for aspiring as well as practicing professionals in the medical and biological sciences it discusses a broad range of topics that are common, yet not traditionally considered part of formal curricula. The information presented also facilitates communication across conventional disciplinary boundaries, in line with the increasingly multidisciplinary nature of modern research projects. · Perfect for students with various professional backgrounds providing a broad scientific perspective · Easily accessible, concise material makes learning about diverse methods achievable in today's fast-paced world · Extensive online resources include further reading suggestions, data files, statistical tables, and the StaTable application package FRONT COVER......Page 1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN THE MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES......Page 4 COPYRIGHT PAGE......Page 5 CONTENTS......Page 6 PREFACE......Page 12 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 13 CONTRIBUTORS......Page 16 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS......Page 24 1.1 Philosophy of the natural sciences......Page 28 1.2 Philosophy of the social sciences......Page 51 Further reading......Page 58 2.1 A brief introduction to ethics......Page 60 2.2 Scientific conduct and misconduct......Page 63 2.3 Misconduct and why it occurs......Page 65 2.4 Fabrication and other forms of misconduct affecting the truth claims of scientific findings......Page 67 2.5 Authorship issues......Page 70 2.6 Salami, imalas and duplicate publication......Page 73 2.7 The investigation and punishment of scientific misconduct......Page 74 References......Page 76 Appendix 1......Page 77 3.1 Introduction......Page 80 3.2 Basic principles of human research ethics......Page 81 3.3 International regulation......Page 83 3.4 The ethics of animal research......Page 97 References......Page 100 Appendix 1 World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects......Page 101 Appendix 2 Oviedo Convention (Council of Europe, European Treaty Series 164)......Page 107 Appendix 3 Oviedo Convention - Additional Protocol Concerning Biomedical Research, Chapter I–IX (Council of Europe, European Treaty Series 195)......Page 109 4.1 Introduction......Page 120 4.2 Your scientific problem......Page 122 4.4 Literature, methods and techniques......Page 124 4.5 Research conditions......Page 127 4.6 Data types......Page 130 4.7 Techniques......Page 132 4.8 Repeatability, reproducibility and reliability......Page 136 4.9 Validity, effect measure and choice of statistical test......Page 139 4.10 Experimental protocol......Page 143 4.11 Experimental routine......Page 149 Further reading......Page 150 5.1 Information literacy......Page 152 5.2 Systematic literature search......Page 154 5.3 How to formulate a query: PICO......Page 156 5.4 Search technique......Page 160 5.5 Methodology filters......Page 163 5.6 Quality: critical appraisal......Page 165 5.7 Impact factor......Page 167 5.8 Principal bibliographic databases......Page 172 5.9 Staying up to date......Page 177 5.10 Medical and scientific Internet search engines......Page 181 5.11 Personal reference databases......Page 182 Further reading......Page 187 6.1 Introduction......Page 188 6.2 Recombinant DNA technology......Page 190 6.3 DNA and RNA: isolation, identification, synthesis and analysis......Page 195 6.4 Practical applications of DNA/RNA technology......Page 201 6.5 Protein analyses......Page 214 6.6 Bioinformatics......Page 222 References......Page 224 7.1 Introduction......Page 226 7.2 Long-term goals and specific aims......Page 228 7.3 Background and significance......Page 232 7.5 Pilot studies......Page 234 7.6 Rules for basic medical research projects......Page 236 Further reading......Page 238 8.1 Controlled clinical trials......Page 240 8.3 Estimating sample size......Page 254 8.4 ‘Non-inferiority’ studies......Page 261 8.5 Generalization......Page 264 References......Page 265 Guidelines......Page 266 9.1 Introduction......Page 268 9.2 Definitions......Page 269 9.3 The role of epidemiology......Page 270 9.4 Population and sample......Page 272 9.5 Measures of disease occurrence, association, risk and implications......Page 273 9.6 Vital statistics......Page 278 9.7 Study designs of epidemiological studies......Page 281 9.8 Effect measures in epidemiological studies......Page 288 9.10 Measurement error and sources of error......Page 295 9.11 Tests and validity......Page 298 9.12 Causes of disease......Page 302 9.13 Association versus causality......Page 305 Further reading......Page 307 10.1 Qualitative versus quantitative research......Page 308 10.2 Using qualitative research......Page 310 10.3 What qualitative research cannot be used for......Page 311 10.4 Samples in qualitative studies......Page 312 10.5 Reliability and validity......Page 313 10.6 Ethical challenges in qualitative research......Page 314 10.7 Qualitative data collection......Page 318 10.8 Triangulation......Page 328 10.9 Analyses of qualitative data......Page 330 10.10 Releasing qualitative data......Page 333 References......Page 334 Further reading......Page 336 11.1 Introduction......Page 338 11.2 Effect measure, hypothesis testing and confidence interval......Page 339 11.3 Bernoulli trial......Page 342 11.4 Comparing two proportions......Page 345 11.5 Measures of association in 2 × 2 tables......Page 350 11.6 Normal distribution......Page 356 11.7 Comparison of means......Page 359 11.8 Non-parametric methods......Page 369 11.9 Regression analysis......Page 377 References......Page 390 Further reading......Page 391 12.1 Introduction......Page 392 12.2 Systematic reviews......Page 393 12.3 Critical appraisal of a systematic review: one example......Page 395 References......Page 407 Further reading......Page 408 13.2 The scientific paper......Page 410 13.3 Posters......Page 437 Further reading......Page 440 14.1 Introduction......Page 442 14.2 Preparing the lecture......Page 443 14.3 Lecture content and form......Page 445 14.4 Manuscript......Page 451 14.5 Delivering a lecture......Page 454 Further reading......Page 459 15.1 Introduction......Page 460 15.2 Getting started......Page 462 15.3 The postdoctoral fellow and junior scientist......Page 464 15.4 What goes into a successful grant application?......Page 470 15.5 The investigator-initiated research grant......Page 472 15.6 Multiproject grants......Page 475 15.7 International research collaborations......Page 478 15.8 The European Union's seventh Framework Programme......Page 481 References......Page 483 A......Page 484 C......Page 485 D......Page 489 E......Page 490 F......Page 492 G......Page 493 H......Page 494 I......Page 495 L......Page 496 M......Page 498 N......Page 499 O......Page 500 P......Page 501 R......Page 504 S......Page 506 T......Page 508 V......Page 509 Z......Page 510