Representations of Writing Materials on Roman Funerary Monuments : Text, Image, Message

Ancient funerary reliefs are full of representations of writing materials and instruments, the interpretation of which can help us better understand the phenomenon of ancient literacy. The eight studies in this volume were delivered as lectures at an online conference organized by the Department of Ancient History at the University of Pécs in October 2021. The comprehensive introductory study (N. Agócs, T. Grüll, J. Jusztinger, E. Szabó) is followed by two thematic studies on depictions of the Muses (E. A. Meyer) and the role of women in written culture (J. Luginbühl). Two studies address writing materials: the well-known and widespread writing tablets (B. Hartmann), and the less-known bone spatulae which nevertheless also occur frequently (A. Willi). Finally, three studies deal with depictions of writing instruments and materials in certain regions of the Roman Empire: at Palmyra (Ł. Sokołowski), in the two Moesiae (S. Pilipović) and in Phrygia (T. Grüll). Each of the studies enriches our knowledge of Roman writing with many new aspects and many detailed observations. Cover 1 Title Page 2 Copyright Page 3 Contents Page 3 List of Figures and Tables 4 Representations of writing tools and materials on Roman funerary monuments 9 Figure 1. Title: Portrait of Terentius Neo and his wife from Pompeii ‒ Location: National Archaeological Museum of Naples inv.-no. 9058 ‒ Source: commons.wikimedia.org 11 Figure 2. Title: Portrait of a young boy holding Plato’s works from the Casa del Cenacolo at Pompeii ‒ Location: National Archaeological Museum of Naples inv.-no. 120620b ‒ Source: Alamy Stock Photo PGHE8M 11 Figure 3. Title: Portrait of a Palmyrene young with schaedae ‒ Location: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 2012.454 ‒ Source: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/328241 12 Figure 4. Title: Portrait of a couple from Lauriacum (Enns, Austria) ‒ Location: Enns, Museum Lauriacum inv.-no. R X 6 ‒ Source: Lupa nr. 491 14 Figure 5. Title: Funerary relief of a soldier and his servant ‒ Location: Historisches Museum, Regensburg, inv.-nr. 86 ‒ Source: Lupa nr. 6322 15 Figure 6. Title: A librarius-servant is writing on his knees ‒ Location: Propsteikirche Mariae Himmelfahrt in Maria Saal (in situ) ‒ Source: Lupa nr. 964 15 Figure 7. Title: Portrait of a family with Zweifingergestus ‒ Location: Janus Pannonius Múzeum, Pécs, inv.-nr. 1254 ‒ Source: Lupa nr. 650 16 Figure 8. Title: Altar dedicated to Diana with rolled-up scrolls on its top ‒ Location: Museo Arqueológico Provincial de Ourense, inv. CE000178 ‒ Source: Hispania Epigraphica nr. 16702 © With the permission of Consellería de Cultura, Educación e Universi 17 Figure 9. Title: Altar dedicated to Turmasgade from Gülük Baba Tepesi ‒ Location: Forschungsstelle Asia Minor, Universität Münster ‒ Source: M. Blömer & M. Facella: Dülük Baba Tepesi II. Inscriptions and sculptures from the sanctuary of Jupiter Dolichenu 17 Figure 10. Title: Salutia’s epitaph with the representation of a Torah-scroll ‒ Location: Vatican Museums cat.-no. 30785 ‒ Source: https://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/lapidario-ebraico/iscrizione-di-salutia.html 18 Figure 11. Domitilla and Priscilla with a codex and a capsa filled with scrolls ‒ Location: Catacombe Domitilla, Roma (in situ) ‒ Source: https://www.catacombedomitilla.it/en 19 Figure 12. Tomb of the prodigy-boy Sulpitius Maximus with an open scroll ‒ Location: Museo Centrale della Montemartini, Capitoline Museums, Rome, inv.-no. NCE 2963 ‒ Source: https://www.archaeology.wiki/blog/2012/04/17/41575/ 19 Figure 13. Tombstone of a couple from Dion ‒ Location: Archaeological Museum of Dion, inv.-no. 5561. ‒ Source: François Lissarrague: De l’image au signe. Objets en représentation dans l’imagerie grecque. Cahiers du Centre de recherches historiques 37 (20 19 Figure 14. Altar of the scribes from Rome, necroplis of Via di Porta San Sebastino ‒ Location: National Museum of Rome in the Baths of Diocletian, Rome, inv.-no. 475.113 ‒ Source: Alamy Stock Photos EE2A0D 20 Figure 15. Aureus minted by Octavian in 28 BCE showing the princeps holding scroll in right hand and a scroll-box at his feet ‒ Location: British Museum, Coins and Medals inv.-no. 1995,0401.1 ‒ Source: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/C_1 21 Clio and Calliope: Why Diptych and Scroll?` 25 Figure 1. Drawing of five Muses on Sophilos vase (BF dinos, ca. 580 BC); drawing of four Muses on François vase (BF volute crater, ca. 570 BC). Drawings by Valérie Toillon. 26 Figure 2. Muse reading from diptych (oinochoe by the Methyse Painter, ca. 440 BC). BA 207346; Queyrel 1992 no. 13. Walter-Karydi, Jahrbuch des kunsthistorisches Museum Wiens 12/13 (2011/2012), 230 Figure 10. Louvre Museum, G440. Photo © 2000 RMN-Grand Pa 27 Figure 4. Muse handing diptych to a male figure (bell-krater by the Pothos Painter, ca. 420 BC). BA 275485; Queyrel 1992 no. 78. Giudice, Tusa, and Tusa, La collezione archeologica del Banco di Sicilia 1 (Palermo, 1992) plate III.12 (cat. E79, inv. no. 19 27 Figure 3. Muses, one with diptych and one with scroll (hydria, ca. 450 BC). BA 9009084; Queyrel 1992 no. 51. Drawing by Dan Weiss Gerhard, Trinkschalen und Gefässe des königlichen Museums zu Berlin und anderen Sammlungen 1 (Berlin, 1848) plate 17. Berlin 27 Figure 5. Muse handing diptych to another Muse (bell-krater, ca. 420-410 BC). BA 215753; Queyrel 1992 no. 107. Kárpáti, Phoenix 66 (2012) pl. 7. Museum of Antiquities of the University of Heidelberg B195 [208]. Photo © Antiquities Collection of the Unive 27 Figure 6. Muse handing a scroll to another Muse (bell-krater by the Pothos Painter, ca. 420-410 BC). Detail. BA 215754; Queyrel 1992 no. 110. Voutira, Imago Musicae 8 (1991) 81 Figure 9. Louvre Museum, G516. Photo © 2012 RMN-Grand Palais (Louvre Museu 28 Figure 7. “The Apotheosis of Homer” by Archelaos of Priene (marble relief; second or first century BC?). British Museum, obj. 1819.0812.1. Photo © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. 29 Figure 8. Halikarnassos base (marble cylindrical altar; second or first century BC). British Museum, obj. 1868.0405.159. Drawing by Dan Weiss, after Ridgway 1990, 258 Figure 32, and incorporating suggestion of Grünhagen 1977, 281 Abb. 2. 30 Figure 10. Pompeii, praedia of Julia Felix (II 4,3). Kleio with scrolls; Calliope with scrolls (AD 62-79). Louvre Museum, ED 2752 and 2751. Photo © 2008 RMN-Grand Palais (Louvre Museum), photos by Hervé Lewandowski, https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/5335 32 Figure 11. Murecine, Triclinium A. Clio with diptych, Calliope with scroll (AD 62-79). De Simone and Nappo 2000, 37 and 34. Photo © ArchaiOptix and Miguel Hermoso Cuesta, respectively, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0. 33 Figure 12. Ostia, Casa delle Muse (III.ix.22). Muse with diptych, Muse with scroll (Hadrianic). Lancha 1994, no. 74. Felletti Maj and Moreno, Ostia. Le pitture della casa delle Muse (1967), plates III and VII. 33 Figure 13. Muse sarcophagus (ca. AD 160). Wegner, Die Musensarkophage (1966), plate 3 (no. 75). Louvre Museum, MR880 and N1035. Photo © 1993 RMN-Grand Palais (Louvre Museum), photo by Hervé Lewandowski, https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010278285 33 Figure 14. Salona (Split), now destroyed. Nine Muses in a single floor: Kleio with diptych (third century AD). Lanza 1994, no. 101. Watercolor, in Abramic, Egger and Gerber, Forschungen in Salona 1 (1917), plate 1. Image in the public domain. 34 Figure 15. Baccano, imperial villa. Floor with Muses and other figures, detail: Clio with diptych (Severan). Lancha 1994, no. 3. Becatti, Fabbricotti, Gallina, Saronia, Serra, and Tambella, Mosaici antichi in Italia, Baccano villa romana (Rome, 1970) no 34 Figure 16. Kos, in situ, cubiculum of Roman house between the West baths and the gymnasium. Mosaic floor with nine Muses: Clio with diptych and Calliope with scroll (probably; third century AD). Faedo 1994, no. 288. Photos © Sailko, Wikimedia Commons, 35 Figure 17. Kasserine. Clio with diptych (second or third century AD). In the Tunisian Embassy in Paris. Lancha 1994, no. 1. Lancha, Mosaïque et culture dans l‘occident romain (Ier – Ive s.) (Rome, 1997), plate 32. Drawing by Dan Weiss. 35 Figure 18. Sousse. Roman house. Vergil flanked by two Muses, Clio and Melpomene (beginning third century AD). Bardo Museum (Inv. Sousse 57.104). Photo © Andrew G. Vaughn, ASOR Photo Collection, CC BY-ND 4.0. 35 Figure 19. Elis. Mosaic of Muse-names and attributes (second-third century AD). Faedo 1994, no. 285. Elis Museum. Photo © Deiadameian, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0, color corrected. 36 Figure 20. Pompeii, House of the Golden Bracelet (VI Ins. Occ. 17.42). Two Muses and poet. Bianchi Bandinelli (1900-2003) 6.141, no. 182; photo © Araldo De Luca, all rights reserved.. 37 Figure 21. Pompeii, House of the Golden Bracelet (VI Ins. Occ. 17.42). Muse hands poet a diptych. Bianchi Bandinelli (1900-2003) 6.145, no. 187; Photo © Realy Easy Star / Alamy Stock Photo. 37 Figure 22. Trier. Clio and Cadmus (Monnus-mosaic; third-fourth century AD). Lancha 1994, no. 108. Hoffmann, Hupe, and Goethert, Katalog der römischen Mosaike aus Trier und dem Umland (Mainz, 1999), plate 67 no. 103. Trier, Landesmuseum 10.703-10.724. 38 Figure 23. Ephesus, House H2/12. Clio with diptych and Calliope with scroll (ca. AD 450). Strocka, Forschungen in Ephesos veröffentlicht vom Österreichischen Archäologischen Institut in Wien 8/1 (Vienna, 1977), plates 335 and 341. Photos © Sonia Halliday 41 Educated by the nine Muses? 44 Figure 1. Togate statue. The carefully rolled scroll and the left exterior of the scrinium are modern additions. Pethworth, Petworth House, Wyndham Collection. https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/1084639 45 Figure 2. Relief with school-scene from Neumagen. Trier, Rheinisches Landesmuseum, inv.-no. 9921. Photo: Michel Reddé, http://lupa.at/32616 46 Figure 3. Grave statues of a man with scroll (?) and a woman holding what seems to be garment folds. On the left of the man stand a capsa. Pompeii, Porta Nocera T. 34 EN. https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/673007 46 Figure 4. Grave stele of Marcus Matorius Maianus and Otacilia Augusta. The man is said to hold a scroll in his right hand, the woman a mappa in the right and a box in the left. Metz, Ilot-St.-Jacques; Metz, La Cour d’Or, Musées de Metz, inv.-no. 75. 38. 6 46 Figure 5. Relief of a servant with mappa and mirror. Location: Sant Donat, built in the church. Photo: Ortolf Harl. http://lupa.at/912 47 Figure 6. Relief of a servant with mirror and box from Grintschach. Villach, Stadtmuseum; inv.-no. STR/3. Photo: Ortolf Harl. http://lupa.at/924 47 Figure 7. Two statues from a grave monument in Pompeii. Pompeii, Porta Nocera T. 9 OS 48 Figure 8. Grave-relief of Marcia Donata Ofentina. Narbonne, Collection musée de France - Ville de Narbonne, inv.-no. 38.1.4.2. Photo Arnaud Späni © Narbo Via 48 Figure 9. Grave relief with a scene from a butcher shop. Dresden, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Skulpturensammlung (Albertinum), inv.-no. 415. https://skd-online-collection.skd.museum/Details/Index/166524 49 Figure 10. Lid of the Portonaccio sarcophagus with education scene. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano, inv.-no 112327. Photo: Barbara Malter. https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/1215991/image/5334569?fl=20 49 Tablet in Hand. Tabulae as markers of professional and social identity of Roman scribae 51 Figure 1. Via Appia, ‘vigna Casali’, Porta S. Sebastiano, Rome. So-called Ara degli Scribi, front view. Museo Nazionale Romano, Terme di Diocleziano, Rome, Inv. nr. 475113. Benjamin Hartmann. 51 Figure 2. Via Appia, ‘vigna Casali’, Porta S. Sebastiano, Rome. So-called Ara degli Scribi, upper relief. Occupational scene. Museo Nazionale Romano, Terme di Diocleziano, Rome, Inv. nr. 475113. Benjamin Hartmann. 52 Figure 3. Via Appia, ‘vigna Casali’, Porta S. Sebastiano, Rome. So-called Ara degli Scribi, lower relief. Depiction of the spes populi romani. Museo Nazionale Romano, Terme di Diocleziano, Rome, Inv. nr. 475113. Benjamin Hartmann. 52 Figure 4. Campus Martius, temple of Neptune, Rome. So-called Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, left side, relief, detail. Louvre, Paris. Inv. nr. LL 399. Marie-Lan Nguyen / Wikimedia Commons. 53 Figure 5. Clevsins, Chiusi. Etruscan funerary relief, bas-relief. Museo Archeologico Antonino Salinas, Palermo, Cippo (N.I.8385), Collezione Casuccini. Museo Archeologico Regionale Antonino Salinas di Palermo. 54 Figure 6. Paestum, Capaccio (Seliano). Marble plaque, funerary inscription with relief depiction. Umberto Soldovieri. 54 Figure 7. Flavia Solva, Seggauberg. Marble plaque, sella-curulis-relief. Graz, Universalmuseum Johanneum. Inv. nr. 175. Friederike Harl, Ortolf Harl, lupa.at/1177 55 Representations of writing tools and materials on Phrygian door stelae 57 Figure 1. Funerary stele made by Asinia Chrysis to his husband Asinion. © With the permission of the Kütahya Arkeoloji Müzesi. Photo taken by the author. 58 Figure 2. Funerary stele made by Clemens to his grandmother Severa. Literature: Waelkens 1986, #371. © With the permission of the Uşak Arkeoloji Müzesi. Photo taken by the author. 59 Figure 3. Percentage of writing tools and materials 60 Figure 4. Funerary altar made by Kyrilla to his husband Eutropius. Literature: MAMA XI, 145. © University of Oxford and Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents, http://mama.csad.ox.ac.uk/monuments/images/ill/1955-39-3.jpg 61 Figure 5. A grave-altar from Thyateira. © With the permission of the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Zentrale Berlin, Wiegand-Haus. Photos taken by Prof. Dr. Hans-Ruprecht Goette. 61 Figure 6. Bronze statuette of an artisan. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art inv. 1972.11.1. Rogers Fund, 1972. © With the permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, www.metmuseum.org, CCO, URL: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/sear 62 Figure 7. The so-called Basilides-codex (Libro Basilidiano). Literature: Rosanna Friggero et al. (eds.): Terme di Diocleziano. La collezione epigrafica. Roma: Ristampa, 2016. cat.-no. IX-41, pp. 596‒599. © With the kind permission of the Museo Nazionale R 63 Figure 8. Polyptych hanging from a strap on the funerary altar of Q. Aemilius Rufus. Literature: CIL 3.12895; ILJug 3.2304; AE 2006, 1009. © With the permission of Split, Arheološki muzej A 1771. Photo taken by Tonći Seser. 64 Broadening the view on literacy in Palmyra. Ten years after the first attempt 66 Figure 1. Mother with two children. The tied up polyptych in older’s child left hand. The wool basket in the right left corner of the stele. Photograph courtesy of Professor Katsumi Tanabe and The Ancient Orient Museum, Tokyo. From K. Tanabe, Sculptures o 68 Figure 2 a-b. Tabulae Ceratae Assendelftianae, 5v and 6r. Courtesy of Leiden University Library, BPG 109. Creative Commons CC-BY License. 68 Figure 3. Painting of instrumenta scriptoria – a writing set used in everyday writing from Pompeii. Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, Naples, inv. no. 9822. Courtesy of MANN. 70 Table 1. The variety of Palmyrene writing tools depicted by means of funerary sculpture in numbers 70 Figure 4. Phoibe and Virius Alcimus holding a wide tablet. British Museum, London, inv. no. 125036. © Trustees of the British Museum. 71 Table 2. The realistically shown writing tools in numbers 71 Figure 5. Yarḥibôlâ son of Sasan holding wide tablet with rhomboidal cut and incisions on the left side. The Archeological Museum of Palmyra, Palmyra, inv. no. 1949/7041. Photograph courtesy of Professor Katsumi Tanabe and The Ancient Orient Museum, Tokyo 71 Figure 6. ʻAtenatan son of Gȗraî with narrow tablet, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, IN 2833. Photo: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen / Anders Sune Berg. 72 Figure 7. Malê son of ʻOggȃ with two narrow tablets. The Archeological Museum of Palmyra, Palmyra, inv. no. 1950/7042. Photograph courtesy of Professor Katsumi Tanabe and The Ancient Orient Museum, Tokyo. From K. Tanabe, Sculptures of Palmyra I, Pl. 296. 72 Figure 8. Servant of priest Yarhai son of Yarhai carrying codex and capsa during religious ceremony. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, IN 1024, Copenhagen. Photo: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen / Anders Sune Berg. 73 Figure 9. The teacher and three discipuli using open rolls and polyptych on a string. GDKE-Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Trier, Inv. No. 9921. Courtesy of GDKE-Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier, Thomas Zühmer. 74 Figure 10. Young Yarḥai, son of Bônnê with inscribed dovetail tablet. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin, inv. no. 27/45. © Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin – photo: Antje Voigt, 2017. 76 Figure 11. The wooden tablet with dovetail handle from Hoq Cave at Socotra with Palmyrene handwriting. Photograph: Christian Robin. 76 Figure 12. Maʻan son of Wahbai with bent schedula. The Archeological Museum of Palmyra, Palmyra, inv. no. 1757/6581. Photograph courtesy of Professor Katsumi Tanabe and The Ancient Orient Museum, Tokyo. From K. Tanabe, Sculptures of Palmyra I, Pl. 293. 77 Figure 13. Narquis son of Šalman holding a schedula with Aramaic word “Grief” inscribed. American University of Beirut, Archaeological Museum, Beirut, inv. no. 2754. © American University of Beirut. 77 Figure 14. Yaddai, son of Ḥairan with double straight schedula, Hypogeum of Bôlḥâ (in situ until 2015, further location unknown). Photograph courtesy of Professor Katsumi Tanabe and The Ancient Orient Museum, Tokyo. From K. Tanabe, Sculptures of Palmyra 78 Figure 15. Unknown man holding double bent schedula. The Archeological Museum of Palmyra, Palmyra, inv. no. 1773/6597. Photograph courtesy of Professor Katsumi Tanabe and The Ancient Orient Museum, Tokyo. From K. Tanabe, Sculptures of Palmyra I, Pl. 291. 78 Figure 16. Priest ʻOggȃ son of Yarḥai holding a double straight schedula with “Grief ʻOggȃ” inscribed in Aramaic. British Museum, London, inv. no. 125020. © Trustees of the British Museum. 78 Figure 17. Taimê son of Halaphtȃ with scroll in his left hand. Musées d’art et d’histoire, Ville de Genève, inv. no. 8188. © Musées d’art et d’histoire, Ville de Genève, photographe: Bettina Jacot-Descombes. 79 Figure 18. Yarhai son of Malku holding codex and capsa. Palmyra, Hypogeum of Bôlhâ South-east necropolis, gallery 4, loculus 3. Photograph courtesy of Professor Katsumi Tanabe and The Ancient Orient Museum, Tokyo. From K. Tanabe, Sculptures of Palmyra I, 79 Figure 19. Taîmaḥȃ together with his brother, Philinos, pressing a tablet to his chest. Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, IN 2776. Photo: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen / Anders Sune Berg. 80 Figure 20. Zabd‘ateh-Zenobios with codex and capsa shown on the Doric pilaster behind his left arm. The Archeological Museum of Palmyra, Palmyra, inv. no. 1760/6584. Photograph courtesy of Professor Katsumi Tanabe and The Ancient Orient Museum, Tokyo. Fro 80 Figure 21. Ḥairan, the beneficiarius, with schedula and stylus. The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. no. 8840. © The State Hermitage Museum. Photo by Leonard Kheifets. 81 Figure 22. Unknown Man in a toga holding libation bowl and schedula. Liebieghaus, Frankfurt a/Main, Inv. No. 853 . Courtesy of Liebieghaus. 84 Figure 23. Unknown couple, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, IN 1026. Courtesy of Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Photo: Łukasz Sokołowski. 85 Figure 24. Unknown man holding schedula with camel’s head behind. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, IN 1049. Courtesy of Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Photo: Łukasz Sokołowski. 86 Figure 25. Yarḥibôlâ, son of Zabd‘ateh with whip and schedula. Musée de Sainte Anne, Jerusalem, inv. no. PB 2670. Courtesy of Musée de Sainte Anne. 87 Figure 26. Unknown girl with a dovetail handle tablet. Musei Vaticani, Vatican City, inv. no. 56598. Drawing and reconstruction: Stephen Chappell [Chapps]. 88 The scroll and codex on funerary steles in the Upper Moesian Limes 91 Figure 1. Map of the Upper Moesian limes. 92 Figure 2. Funerary stele of Larsinia Ingenua, wife of P. Aelius Dionysius, veteran and former signifier of the legion IV Flavia (Singidunum). Reproduced by permission of the National Museum in Belgrade. 92 Figure 3. Funerary stele of Nunnius Priscianus, decurion of the colony of Singidunum (Singidunum). Reproduced by permission of the National Museum in Belgrade. 92 Figure 4. Funerary stele of Aurelia Procla, wife of Aurelius Victor, a soldier of the cohort II Aurelia nova (Singidunum). Reproduced by permission of the National Museum in Belgrade. 93 Figure 5. Funerary stele of T. Baebius Eutyches, the Augustalis of the municipium of Viminacium (Viminacium). Reproduced by permission of the National Museum of Pozarevac. 93 Figure 6. Funerary stele of P. Aelius Aprio, the Augustalis of the colony of Ratiaria (Timacum Minus). Reproduced by permission of the National Museum Niš. 94 Figure 7. Funerary stele with a portrait niche (Singidunum). Reproduced by permission of the National Museum in Belgrade. 94 Figure 8. Funerary stele of Domitia Ursa and Serenia Quarta (Singidunum). Reproduced by permission of the National Museum in Belgrade. 95 Figure 9. Funerary stele of Caius Cornelius Rufus, the decurion and augur of the municipium of Viminacium (Viminacium). Reproduced by permission of the National Museum of Požarevac. 95 Figure 10. Funerary stele with Kontorszene (Viminacium). Reproduced by permission of the National Museum in Belgrade. 96 Figure 11. Funerary stele of L. Blassius Nigellio, speculator of the legion VII Claudia (Viminacium). Reproduced by permission of the National Museum in Belgrade. 97 Depictions of bone ‘spatulate’ strips and a few thoughts about their function 99 Figure 1. Types of bone spatulate strips from Johnson 2023b fig. 9. Drawing by Karen Parker, © W. A. Johnson. 100 Figure 2. Sales scene on the altar of Atimetus and Epaphra from Rome (CIL VI 16166). Vatican Museum, inv. 9277, © Photo Scala, Florence. 100 Figure 3. Drawing of the fresco in the tomb of C. Vestorius Priscus, Pompeii, redrawn by the author after Spano 1943 fig. 9 and Mols and Moormann 1993–1994 fig. 17. 101 Figure 4. Detail from the fresco in the tomb of C. Vestorius Priscus, Pompeii. © Jackie and Bob Dunn www.pompeiiinpictures.com, su concessione del MiC - Parco Archeologico di Pompei. 101 Figure 5. Funerary relief with architectural instruments and writing equipment. Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri (inv. 41-63/4), photo courtesy Nelson-Atkins Media Services. 102 Figure 6. Altar of Q. Aemilius Rufus (CIL III 12895), detail, Arheološki muzej u Splitu (inv. A 1771). Photo by Ortolf Harl, © Arheološki muzej u Splitu. 103 Foreword by the editor 8 Representations of writing tools and materials on Roman funerary monuments 9 Tibor Grüll, Nándor Agócs, János Jusztinger, Ernő Szabó 9 Clio and Calliope: Why Diptych and Scroll?` 25 Elizabeth A. Meyer 25 Educated by the nine Muses? 44 Josy Luginbühl 44 Tablet in Hand. Tabulae as markers of professional and social identity of Roman scribae 51 Benjamin Hartmann 51 Representations of writing tools and materials on Phrygian door stelae 57 Tibor Grüll 57 Broadening the view on literacy in Palmyra. Ten years after the first attempt 66 Łukasz Sokołowski 66 The scroll and codex on funerary steles in the Upper Moesian Limes 91 Sanja Pilipović 91 Depictions of bone ‘spatulate’ strips and a few thoughts about their function 99 Anna Willi 99 Ancient funerary reliefs are full of representations of writing materials and instruments,the interpretation of which can help us better understand the phenomenon of ancient literacy. The eight studies in this volume were delivered as lectures at an online conference organized by the Department of Ancient History at the University of Pécs in October 2021. The comprehensive introductory study (N. Agócs,T. Grüll,J. Jusztinger,E. Szabó) is followed by two thematic studies on depictions of the Muses (E. A. Meyer) and the role of women in written culture (J. Luginbühl). Two studies address writing materials: the well-known and widespread writing tablets (B. Hartmann),and the less-known bone spatulae which nevertheless also occur frequently (A. Willi). Finally,three studies deal with depictions of writing instruments and materials in certain regions of the Roman Empire: at Palmyra (Ł. Sokołowski),in the two Moesiae (S. Pilipović) and in Phrygia (T. Grüll). Each of the studies enriches our knowledge of Roman writing with many new aspects and many detailed observations.,Tibor Grüll is Professor of Ancient History and Doctor of Sciences (D.Sc.),awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He has taught at the University of Pécs since 1998,where he has led the Department of Ancient History since 2015. He has published 16 books and 250 articles,and has given lectures in venues from Cambridge to Jerusalem over the past three decades.