Representations of Animals on Greek and Roman Engraved Gems : Meanings and Interpretations

Whereas animals are a frequent depiction on gemstones within the Greek and Roman periods, and play a key role in symbolic representations on these engraved gems, they have generally been overlooked with little in the way of focussed academic study. In the present research, a large group of Greek and Roman gems (intaglios) bearing depictions of animals was selected. The gems are presented through a detailed study of the themes described in an attempt to form a comprehensive approach to the depictions of animals and their significance on Greek and Roman gems. The work examines the associations between animal depictions and the type of gemstone and its believed qualities. The study also discusses the changes in representation of animals on gems compared to other, larger media, and questions the significance of these changes. It is concluded here that as far as animal motifs are concerned, the gems could be accorded with a deeper symbolism, such as good luck, abundance and fertility, health, success, and victory. All these motifs are perceived as capable of weakening hostile forces. The animals engraved can also symbolise nature's abundance and fertility, especially when represented along with their offspring, pasturing and grazing, or accompanied by such fertility symbols as cornucopia, ears of corn, and wine goblets. Other animals are related to certain gods, and even comprise their attributes, and thus it was believed that the owner of an engraved gem was accorded divine protection. Table of Contents Introduction Engraved gems: a survey: 1. The Uses of Engraved Gems, 2. The materials used for ancient gems, 3. The themes depicted on gems, 4. References to gemstones in ancient literary sources, 5. Dating methods, 6. Carving technique, 7. Artists and workshops Animal images and their meaning: Mammals, Cattle, Deer, Goats, Horses, Boars and sows, Predatory animals, Panthers, Lions, Birds, Birds of Prey, and Fowl, Eagles, Parrots, Roosters, Geese, Swans, Insects, Ants, Marine creatures, Dolphins, Seashells, Hybrids, Sphinx, Pegasus, Capricorn, Hippocamp, Gryllos (Hippalectryon) Interactions between animal depictions in various media and their depictions on gems Associations between animal depictions and the type of gemstone and its believed qualities Summary Bibliography Although animals are frequently depicted on gemstones from different periods and play a key role in the symbolic representations of such engraved gems, they are often overlooked and under studied. For this volume, a large group of Greek and Roman gems (intaglios) bearing depictions of animals was selected for study. The gems are presented through a detailed analysis of the themes described, in order to form a comprehensive approach to the depictions of animals and their significance on Greek and Roman gems. Representations of Animals on Greek and Roman Engraved Gems: Meanings and interpretations examines the associations between animal depictions and the type of gemstone and its believed qualities and discusses the changes in representation of animals on gems compared to other, larger media. It also enquires into the significance of these changes. It is concluded that, as far as animal motifs are concerned, the gems could be accorded with a deeper symbolism such as good luck, health, success and victory. All these motifs are perceived as capable of weakening hostile forces. The engraved animals may also symbolize nature’s abundance and fertility, especially when represented along with their offspring, pasturing or grazing, or accompanied by such fertility symbols as cornucopia, ears of corn, and wine goblets. Other animals are related to certain gods, and even comprise their attributes, and thus it was believed that the owner of an engraved gem was accorded divine protection. Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Dedication 5 Contents 7 List of figures 9 List of figures 9 Acknowledgements 13 Acknowledgements 13 Introduction 15 Introduction 15 Engraved gems: a survey 21 1. The Uses of Engraved Gems 21 A. Engraved Gems as Seals 21 B. Engraved Gems as Amulets 24 C. Engraved Gems as Jewellery 28 2. The materials used for ancient gems 30 A. Chalcedonies or non-crystallising quartzes 30 B. Crystallising quartzes 31 C. Harder, more precious stones 32 D. Inferior varieties 33 3. The themes depicted on gems 33 4. References to gemstones in ancient literary sources 34 5. Dating methods 35 A. Archaeological context 36 B. The type and shape of the gemstone 36 C. The technique and style of the gemstone 37 D. Choice of themes 47 E. Comparison to works in other media 47 6. Carving technique 48 7. Artists and workshops 50 Engraved gems: a survey 21 1. The Uses of Engraved Gems 21 A. Engraved Gems as Seals 21 B. Engraved Gems as Amulets 24 C. Engraved Gems as Jewellery 28 2. The materials used for ancient gems 30 A. Chalcedonies or non-crystallising quartzes 30 B. Crystallising quartzes 31 C. Harder, more precious stones 32 D. Inferior varieties 33 3. The themes depicted on gems 33 4. References to gemstones in ancient literary sources 34 5. Dating methods 35 A. Archaeological context 36 B. The type and shape of the gemstone 36 C. The technique and style of the gemstone 37 D. Choice of themes 47 E. Comparison to works in other media 47 6. Carving technique 48 7. Artists and workshops 50 Animal images and their meaning 52 Mammals 53 Cattle 53 Deer 64 Goats 69 Horses 77 Boars and sows 98 Predatory animals 101 Panthers 101 Lions 104 Birds, Birds of Prey, and Fowl 118 Eagles 118 Parrots 121 Roosters 123 Geese 129 Swans 130 Insects 133 Ants 133 Marine creatures 135 Dolphins 135 Seashells 139 Hybrids 140 Sphinx 140 Pegasus 147 Capricorn 151 Hippocamp 154 Gryllos (Hippalectryon) 158 Animal images and their meaning 52 Mammals 53 Cattle 53 Deer 64 Goats 69 Horses 77 Boars and sows 98 Predatory animals 101 Panthers 101 Lions 104 Birds, Birds of Prey, and Fowl 118 Eagles 118 Parrots 121 Roosters 123 Geese 129 Swans 130 Insects 133 Ants 133 Marine creatures 135 Dolphins 135 Seashells 139 Hybrids 140 Sphinx 140 Pegasus 147 Capricorn 151 Hippocamp 154 Gryllos (Hippalectryon) 158 Figure 1a. A Cow Suckling her Calf and a grasshopper, green jasper, 12x16x8.5 mm, a Classical-Phoenician scarab, first half of the 5th century BC. 54 Figure 1b. Impression of the green jasper scarab. 55 Figure 2a. Double sided gem: side a – a bull and a star, drawing, carnelian, 10 x 7.5 x 2.5 mm, 1st BC–AD 30. 58 Figure 2b. Side b – head of a woman. 58 Figure 2c. Side b – head of a woman, drawing. 58 Figure 3. Grazing bull, impression of carnelian stone, 10 x 7.5 x 5.5 mm, an Etruscan ‘globolo’ style scarab, 350 BC. 59 Figure 4. bull and tree, carnelian, 13.5 x 11 x 2 mm, 1st century AD. 60 Figure 5a. Cow, onyx, 14 x 9.5 mm, the second half of the 1st century BC–beginning of the 2nd century AD. 61 Figure 5b. Impression of the onyx stone. 61 Figure 6. A cow and a calf, carnelian, intaglio and impression, 10 x 7.5 x 2.5 mm, c. 31 BC–AD 14. 62 Figure 7a. Herdsman driving an ox-drawn plough, red jasper, 15 x 11.5 x 2 mm, the beginning of the 2nd century AD. 63 Figure 7b. Herdsman driving an ox-drawn plough, drawing. 63 Figure 8a. Sitting stag, banded agate, an Archaic late 5th-century BC scarab 65 Figure 8b. Archaic agate scarab 65 Figure 8c. Impression of the agate scarab. 65 Figure 9a. Leaping deer, carnelian, 11 x 9 x 7 mm, an Etruscan ‘globolo’ style scarab, third century BC. 66 Figure 9b. Impression of the scarab. 67 Figure 10a. Satyr petting a goat, carnelian, 17 x 15 mm, 18th century. 70 Figure 10b. Impression of the carnelian stone. 71 Figure 11a. Goat browsing from a tree, red jasper, 17 x 13 x 2 mm, 2nd century AD. 72 Figure 11b. Impression of the red jasper stone. 72 Figure 12. Pair of clasped hands, ear of corn and goats, impression of a granite stone, 14.5 x 14 x 2 mm, 1st century BC-AD 30. 73 Figure 13. Two goats on either side of an amphora, impression of an amethyst stone, 14.5 x 14 x 2 mm, 1st century AD. 74 Figure 14. Countryman milking a goat, carnelian, end of the 1st–2nd century AD. 75 Figure 15. Shepherd with a dog and a nursing goat, chrome chalcedony, intaglio and impression, 1st century AD. 76 Figure 16. Front torso of a galloping horse, garnet, intaglio and impression, 16 x 14 mm, 2nd century BC. 79 Figure 17. Grazing horse, agate, intaglio and impression, 14 x 8 mm, 1st century AD. 81 Figure 18. Horse with a palm-branch, impression of a carnelian stone, 12 x 9 x 6 mm, an Etruscan ‘globolo’ style scarab, 300 BC. 81 Figure 19b. Horse in profile, drawing. 82 Figure 20. Nike/Victory riding a quadriga, heliotrope, 2.5 x 10.5 x 13 mm, 2nd century AD. 83 Figure 21b. Helios/Sol riding a quadriga, drawing. 84 Figure 22b. Impression of the carnelian stone. 85 Figure 23a. Achilles, Penthesilea, and her horse, carnelian, 20 x 18 mm, the end of the 1st century BC, The Israel Museum Jerusalem, The Harry Stern Collection, bequeathed by Dr Kurt Stern, London. In memory of his parents and his brother who perished 87 Figure 23b. Impression of the carnelian stone. 87 Figure 24a. Pair of horses in front of a pillar, carnelian, 11.5 x 8 x 2.5 mm, Late 1st century AD, The Israel Museum Jerusalem, previously in the Bezalel Collection, IMJ77.31.1069. 90 Figure 24b. Impression of the carnelian stone. 90 Figure 25b. Impression of the carnelian stone. 91 Figure 26. rider on a galloping horse, impression of carnelian stone, 15 x 12 x 4 mm, end of the 1st–2nd century AD. 92 Figure 27. rider with his chlamys fluttering, carnelian, intaglio and impression, 14 x 10 mm, 240–228 BC. 93 Figure 28. A Celtic/Gaulish horseman, impression of carnelian stone, 11 x 12 mm, the first half of the 1st century BC. 97 Figure 29b. Impression of the carnelian scarab. 99 Figure 30. female panther with a thyrsus, nicolo, 12 x 10 x 3 mm, the end of the 2nd – beginning of the 3rd century AD. 102 Figure 31. Seated lion, impression of green jasper stone, 13.5 x 9.5 x 6 mm, a Classical-Phoenician scarab, 400 BC. 104 Figure 32. Lion treading on a supine human, agate, intaglio and impression, 12 x 9 mm, the second half of the 1st century - beginning of the 2nd century AD. 107 Figure 33b. Impression of the yellow jasper stone. 109 Figure 34b. Lion attacking a goat, drawing. 110 Figure 35. Heracles battling the Nemean lion, red jasper, 21 x 15 mm, 2nd-3rd century AD. 113 Figure 36b. Eros galloping on a lion, drawing. 116 Figure 37. eagle standing on a pedestal between two military standards (vexilla), drawing of yellow jasper stone, 2 x 9.5 x 1.51 mm, 2nd century AD. 119 Figure 38. eagle standing on a pedestal between two military standards (vexilla), drawing of carnelian stone, 12.5 x 10.5 x 2.5 mm, 1st century AD,The Israel Museum Jerusalem, Bequest of Mr. Adolphe Doreen, Paris. IMJ70.62.335. 119 Figure 39. eagle standing on a pedestal and holding a wreath, drawing of nicolo stone, 12 x 10 x 3.5 mm, 2nd century AD. 119 Figure 40b. Eros riding a chariot harnessed to two parrots, drawing. 122 Figure 41. A rooster, impression of carnelian stone, 12 x 8 x 6.5 mm, 100 BC. 124 Figure 42. A pair of roosters engaged in a cockfight, impression of quartz stone, 20 x 11 x 5 mm, 1st century BC–AD 30. 125 Figure 43. rooster and a scorpion, impression of carnelian stone, 3rd century AD. 127 Figure 44a. Rooster preying upon a mouse, red jasper, 13 x 9.5 x 3 mm, 2nd century AD. 128 Figure 44b. Rooster preying upon a mouse, drawing. 128 Figure 45. Mouse riding on a rooster, carnelian, 12.5 x 10 x 3.5 mm, 3rd century AD. 128 Figure 46. Juno and a goose, carnelian, 13 x 15 mm, 18th century. 130 Figure 46b. Impression of the carnelian stone. 130 Figure 47. Leda and the swan, chrome chalcedony, 13 x 15 mm, 1st century AD. 131 Figure 48. Ceres holding ears of corn, with an ant below, impression of carnelian stone, 2nd century AD. 133 Figure 49b. Impression of the agate stone. 134 Figure 50. Eros riding a dolphin, carnelian, intaglio and impression, 11.5 x 10 x 2 mm, 1st century AD. 136 Figure 51. Elephant emerging from a sea-shell, nicolo, 2nd century AD. 140 Figure 52b. Impression of the agate stone. 141 Figure 53b. Impression of the agate stone. 142 Figure 54b. Impression of the carnelian stone. 143 Figure 55b. sphinx attacking a warrior, drawing. 144 Figure 56b. Impression of the amethyst stone. 148 Figure 57b. Impression of the carnelian stone. 150 Figure 58. Capricorn and a crab, impression of a carnelian stone, 14 x 10 mm, 2nd–3rd century AD. 152 Interactions between animal depictions 160 in various media and their depictions on gems 160 Associations between animal depictions and the type of gemstone and its believed qualities 167 Interactions between animal depictions 160 in various media and their depictions on gems 160 Associations between animal depictions and the type of gemstone and its believed qualities 167 Associations between animal depictions and the type of gemstone 169 Associations between animal depictions and the type of gemstone 169 Associations between animal depictions and the type of gemstone 171 Associations between animal depictions and the type of gemstone 171 Associations between animal depictions and the type of gemstone 173 Associations between animal depictions and the type of gemstone 173 Summary 175 Abbreviations 181 Bibliography 181 Ancient Sources 181 Modern Sources 186 gems,Greek,Roman,animals' engraving,Israel