Renewable Energy Technologies and Resources

This exciting new book presents an excellent coverage of renewable energy technologies and resources. The book focuses on photovoltaics, hydro, tidal, wind, and biomass systems. It explains the scientific principles and physical systems used for harvesting and harnessing of renewable resources and makes comprehensive use of worked examples and problems. Readers will also learn how to effectively calculate the cost and payback time for a given renewable energy plant by understanding the factors affecting the cost of generating electricity from a renewable energy system. The book uses a simplified mathematical approach and provides appropriate background material. The ultimate objective of the book is to provide a concise text book for university students on science and engineering courses as well as for professional practitioners. principles and physical systems used for harvesting and harnessing of renewable resources and makes comprehensive use of worked examples and problems. Readers will also learn how to effectively calculate the cost and payback time for a given renewable energy plant by understanding the factors affecting the cost of generating electricity from a renewable energy system. The book uses a simplified mathematical approach and provides appropriate background material. Artech House Power Engineering Series Renewable Energy Technologies and Resources 1 Contents 6 1 Introduction 16 1.1 Learning Outcomes 16 1.2 Overview 16 1.3 Introduction 17 1.4 Energy, Work, and Power 18 1.5 Basic Forms of Energy 20 1.5.1 Kinetic Energy 20 1.5.2 Gravitational Energy 21 1.5.3 Electrical Energy 21 1.5.4 Nuclear Energy 23 1.6 Capacity Factor and Efficiency 24 1.7 Current Use of Energy 26 1.8 Fossil Fuels and Greenhouse Effect 27 1.9 Renewable Energy Sources 28 1.9.1 Solar Energy 28 1.9.2 Hydropower 29 1.9.3 Wind Power 29 1.9.4 Wave Power 29 1.9.5 Biomass 29 1.9.6 Tidal Energy 30 1.9.7 Geothermal 30 1.10 Summary 30 1.11 Problems 31 References 32 2 Photovoltaics: Background Material 34 2.1 Learning Outcomes 34 2.2 Overview 34 2.3 Introduction 35 2.4 Coulomb’s Law 36 2.5 Static Electric Field 37 2.6 Static Electric Potential 38 2.7 The Concept of Static Potential Barrier 39 2.8 Intrinsic Semiconductors 40 2.9 Holes and Electrons as Charge Carriers 41 2.10 Extrinsic Semiconductors 43 2.11 Pn-Junction Diode 44 2.11.1 Pn-Junction under Reverse-Bias Condition 46 2.11.2 Pn-Junction under Forward-Bias Condition 47 2.12 Semiconductor Diode as a Circuit Element 49 2.13 Solving Diode Circuit Problems 49 2.13.1 Load-Line Method 51 2.13.2 Trial and Error Method 53 2.14 Large Signal Diode Models 55 2.14.1 The Ideal Diode Model 55 2.14.2 The Battery Plus Ideal Diode Model 56 2.14.3 The Battery Plus Resistance Plus Ideal Diode Model 56 2.15 Problems 57 References 60 3 Photovoltaics: Characteristics and Circuit Modeling of the PV Cell 62 3.1 Learning Outcomes 62 3.2 Overview 63 3.3 Introduction 63 3.4 Electromagnetic Energy 64 3.5 Spectral Irradiance, Insolation, and Radiation 64 3.6 The Photovoltaic Effect 65 3.7 Photovoltaic Materials 65 3.8 The Bandgap Energy Theory 66 3.9 Energy from the Sun and its Spectrum 69 3.10 Theoretical Maximum Efficiency of PV Cells 70 3.11 Operation of a Generic PV Cell 72 3.12 Terminal Characteristic of a PV Cell 73 3.13 Standard Test Conditions 77 3.14 Equivalent Circuit Models of a PV Cell 77 3.14.1 Ideal Model 79 3.14.2 Ideal Model Plus Parallel Resistance Model 79 3.14.3 Ideal Model Plus a Series Resistance 81 3.14.4 Ideal Model Plus Parallel Resistance Plus Series Resistance 83 3.15 Summary 85 3.16 Chapter Problems 86 References 88 4 Photovoltaics: PV Arrays Operation and Characteristics 90 4.1 Learning Outcomes 90 4.2 Overview 91 4.3 Introduction 91 4.4 Photovoltaic Arrays 91 4.5 Fill Factor and Efficiency 95 4.6 Effects of Temperature and Insolation on the I-V and P-V Characteristics 97 4.7 Effects of Partial Shading on the I-V and P-V Characteristics and Bypass Diodes 100 4.8 Blocking Diode 106 4.9 Summary 107 4.10 Problems 108 References 110 5 Photovoltaics: PV Generating Systems 112 5.1 Learning Outcomes 112 5.2 Overview 113 5.3 Introduction 113 5.4 Stand-alone Photovoltaic Generating Systems 113 5.4.1 Directly Coupled PV system 113 5.4.2 Directly Coupled PV System with Battery 114 5.4.3 Hybrid System 114 5.5 Grid-Connected Systems 115 5.5.1 DC-AC Inverters 116 5.5.2 Standards for Grid-Inverters 119 5.5.3 DC-DC Converters 120 5.6 Operation of a PV Generator with Different Types of Loads 122 5.6.1 Load Curve for a Purely Resistive Load 122 5.6.2 Load Curve for a DC Motor 124 5.6.3 Load Curve for a Battery 127 5.7 Maximum Power Point Trackers 130 5.8 Batteries and Energy Storage 131 5.9 Effect of Blocking Diodes 134 5.10 Summary 136 5.11 Problems 137 References 140 6 Hydroelectricity 142 6.1 Learning Outcomes 142 6.2 Overview 142 6.3 Introduction 143 6.4 Essential Elements of a Hydroelectric Power Plant 143 6.5 Classifications of Hydroelectric Plants by Rated Capacity 144 6.6 Classification of Hydropower Plants by Effective Head of Water 145 6.7 Calculation of Hydropower 147 6.8 Pelton Turbine 149 6.8.1 Governing the Pelton Turbine 150 6.8.2 Input Power 150 6.9 Kaplan Turbine 152 6.10 Francis Turbine 153 6.11 Tubular Turbine 154 6.12 Load Curve 154 6.13 Pumped Storage 155 6.14 Hydro as an Element in a Power System 157 6.15 Resource 158 6.16 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydropower 159 6.17 Summary 159 6.18 Problems 159 References 161 7 Tidal Energy 162 7.1 Learning Outcomes 162 7.2 Overview 162 7.3 Introduction 163 7.4 The Nature of Tidal Energy 163 7.5 Tidal Barrage Power Generation 164 7.5.1 Single-Basin Ebb Generation 165 7.5.2 Single-Basin Flood Generation 165 7.5.3 Single-Basin Two-Way Generation 166 7.5.4 Double-Basin Scheme 166 7.6 Power Generation Profile 167 7.7 Tidal Lagoon Energy Harnessing 169 7.8 Tidal Stream Schemes 170 7.9 Calculations of Power Output of a Tidal Barrage 172 7.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Tidal Power 174 7.11 Summary 175 7.12 Problems 175 References 176 8 Wind Energy 178 8.1 Learning Outcomes 178 8.2 Overview 178 8.3 Introduction 179 8.4 Turbine Blades 179 8.5 Types of Wind Turbines 180 8.6 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines 180 8.7 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines 182 8.8 Power in the Wind 184 8.8.1 Effect of the Number of Blades 185 8.8.2 Maximum Theoretical Efficiency of Wind Turbines 188 8.9 Electrical Power and Energy from Wind Turbines 191 8.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Energy 194 8.11 Wind Turbine Generators 194 8.12 Summary 194 8.13 Problems 195 References 197 9 Bioenergy 198 9.1 Learning Outcomes 198 9.2 Overview 199 9.3 Introduction 199 9.4 Biomass as a Renewable Energy Source 200 9.5 Biomass as a Solar Energy Source 201 9.6 Biomass as a Fuel 202 9.7 Primary Biomass Energy Sources 204 9.7.1 Woody Biomass 204 9.7.2 Cellulosic Materials 205 9.7.3 Sugary Crops 205 9.7.4 Oilseed Crops 205 9.7.5 Microalgae 206 9.8 Secondary Biomass Sources 206 9.8.1 Wood Residues 207 9.8.2 Crop Coproducts 207 9.8.3 Animal Wastes 207 9.8.4 Municipal Solid Waste 207 9.8.5 Commercial and Industrial Wastes 208 9.9 Advantages of Biomass 210 9.9.1 Renewable 210 9.9.2 Carbon-Neutral 210 9.9.3 Versatile 210 9.9.4 Reduction of Waste 210 9.9.5 Local 210 9.9.6 Abundant 211 9.10 Disadvantages of Biomass 211 9.10.1 Not Completely Clean 211 9.10.2 Risk of Deforestation 211 9.10.3 Requires Large Space 211 9.10.4 Inefficient 211 9.10.5 Requires Water 212 9.11 Processing of Biomass 212 9.12 Summary 213 9.13 Problems 213 References 216 10 Costing a Renewable Energy Project 218 10.1 Learning Outcomes 218 10.2 Overview 218 10.3 Introduction 219 10.4 Rated Capacity and Capacity Factor 219 10.5 Types of Costs of a Power Plant 220 10.6 Factors Affecting the Cost of Electricity 221 10.6.1 Rated Capacity and Capacity Factor 221 10.6.2 Fuel Costs and Efficiency 221 10.6.3 O&M Costs 222 10.6.4 Capital Costs and Plant Lifetime 222 10.7 Calculating Costs 222 10.7.1 Payback Time Method 222 10.7.2 Annual Levelized Cost of Electricity 223 10.8 Problems 227 References 229 About the Author 230 Renewable energy; Renewable resources; Power engineering; Artech House; 978-1-63081-573-8 Renewable energy,Renewable resources,Power engineering,Artech House,978-1-63081-573-8