Remedies Against International Organisations (Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law, Series Number 21)

International organizations have become major players on the international scene, whose acts and activities affect individuals, companies and states. Damage to interests or violation of rights sometimes occur (such as during peacekeeping operations). Wellens considers the remedies available to potential claimants such as private contractors, staff members or anyone suffering damage. Can they turn to an ombudsman or national courts, or do they have to rely on support by their own state? Are the remedies provided by international organizations adequate? Wellens' study includes suggestions for alternative remedial options. Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Series-title......Page 5 Title......Page 7 Copyright......Page 8 Contents......Page 9 Acknowledgements......Page 11 Abbreviations......Page 13 Introduction......Page 17 PART I • GENERAL FEATURES OF REMEDIES AGAINST INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS......Page 21 1 The accountability regime for international organisations......Page 23 Remedies in international law......Page 26 The need for remedies against international organisations......Page 28 A constitutional obligation......Page 29 The human rights protection imperative......Page 30 The right to a remedy......Page 32 Distinctive features......Page 35 Common features......Page 39 Some further observations of a more general nature......Page 41 3 The different levels of accountability and the appropriateness of various remedies: scope ratione materiae......Page 44 Member states and the first level of accountability......Page 45 Member states and the second and third level of accountability......Page 48 Non-member states and non-state third parties......Page 49 Access to remedies: scope ratione personae and differential standing......Page 52 Access to remedies: scope ratione fori and differential standing......Page 55 The claimant’s approach......Page 60 The state of the law......Page 62 The procedural aspects......Page 66 Peacekeeping and peace-enforcement operations: a separate category......Page 68 Judicial remedies......Page 70 First-level remedies......Page 73 PART II • PROCEDURAL ASPECTS OF REMEDIAL ACTION AGAINST INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS......Page 77 7 Introduction to procedural aspects of remedial action against international organisations......Page 79 Exhaustion of internal remedies......Page 82 Differences over privileges and immunities......Page 84 The holding-harmless clause......Page 86 The holding-harmless clause and peacekeeping operations......Page 87 Diplomatic protection vis-à-vis the international organisation......Page 89 Diplomatic protection and the exhaustion of internal remedies......Page 92 Disputes involving staff members......Page 94 The present system of protection......Page 97 Challenging legislative decisions......Page 100 The review system......Page 102 10 Procedural aspects of remedial action by private claimants......Page 104 The overall picture......Page 105 Sub-contracting......Page 108 Arbitration......Page 109 Insurance and self-insurance......Page 112 Peacekeeping operations as a separate category: the ONUC case......Page 113 The conditions of control and command......Page 115 Limitation of third-party liability......Page 118 The claims review boards......Page 119 Non-governmental organisations and international organisations: an ambivalent relationship......Page 122 Lack of locus standi for representational non-governmental organisations......Page 123 Representational non-governmental organisations presenting their views before international courts and tribunals......Page 124 The jurisdictional immunity of international organisations before domestic courts......Page 130 International organisations before domestic courts......Page 132 Judicial abstention by domestic courts......Page 133 Judicial activism by domestic courts......Page 137 The burden of proof and evidence......Page 141 Disclosure of information and documents......Page 142 Proof and evidence before international criminal tribunals......Page 145 PART III • SUBSTANTIVE OUTCOME OF REMEDIAL ACTION AGAINST INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS......Page 149 13 General features of remedial outcome......Page 151 Orders for specific performance......Page 153 Declaratory judgments......Page 156 Pecuniary remedies......Page 157 Non-pecuniary remedies......Page 158 Punitive damages......Page 160 Costs and attorneys’ fees......Page 161 General picture......Page 163 A variety of remedies......Page 165 Compensation......Page 167 The problem of costs......Page 170 Contractual liability claims......Page 172 Procurement-related arbitration cases......Page 173 Tort liability claims......Page 176 Peacekeeping operations......Page 178 Ex gratia payments......Page 181 PART IV • ALTERNATIVE REMEDIAL ACTION AGAINST INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND OPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE......Page 183 16 Introduction to alternative remedial action against international organisations and options for the future......Page 185 17 Pre-remedial action......Page 188 18 Non-legal alternative remedial action......Page 193 The ombudsman model......Page 194 The inspection panel model......Page 197 The World Bank Inspection Panel......Page 198 The World Bank’s 1996 Clarifications and the 1999 Conclusions......Page 200 The World Bank Inspection Panel as an accountability mechanism......Page 201 The World Bank Inspection Panel as a model......Page 203 The potential remedial effect of Commissions of Inquiry......Page 206 Two recent examples:the reports on Srebrenica and on Rwanda......Page 209 19 Amendment of existing judicial remedies......Page 214 The UN internal system of justice: the 1995 proposals......Page 215 The jurisdiction of international administrative tribunals......Page 218 Denial of justice......Page 219 An appeal procedure......Page 220 Prospective and retrospective approaches......Page 222 Waiver of immunity and the balance of interests......Page 224 The obligation to provide alternative modes of settlement......Page 225 Domestic courts as an appropriate forum......Page 229 The solution offered by Reinisch......Page 231 The potential role of arbitration proceedings......Page 235 Arbitration between states and international organisations......Page 236 Arbitration between non-state entities and international organisations......Page 238 20 An inevitable role for the International Court of Justice......Page 240 Indirect remedial opportunity in an inter-state dispute before the Court......Page 242 (In)direct remedial opportunity by way of a (binding) Advisory Opinion......Page 244 Advisory Opinions under the 1946 General Convention: the right of initiative......Page 246 Remedial protection......Page 250 The need for change......Page 252 The 1997 proposals......Page 253 Policy reasons......Page 254 The amendment of the jurisdiction ratione personae: which international organisations should be granted locus standi?......Page 257 Guatemala’s proposal......Page 261 Costa Rica’s proposal......Page 263 Freedom of exclusion......Page 264 Some procedural aspects and rights......Page 266 Intervention......Page 268 Amicus curiae......Page 270 Locus standi for non-state entities:representational non-governmental organisations and individuals?......Page 271 How can the necessary changes be brought about?......Page 272 Conclusion......Page 279 Bibliography......Page 287 Index......Page 295 Cover 1 Half-title 3 Series-title 5 Title 7 Copyright 8 Contents 9 Acknowledgements 11 Abbreviations 13 Introduction 17 PART I • GENERAL FEATURES OF REMEDIES AGAINST INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS 21 1 The accountability regime for international organisations 23 2 Remedies against international organisations 26 Remedies in international law 26 The need for remedies against international organisations 28 A constitutional obligation 29 The human rights protection imperative 30 The right to a remedy 32 Comparing remedies against states with remedies against international organisations 35 Distinctive features 35 Common features 39 Some further observations of a more general nature 41 3 The different levels of accountability and the appropriateness of various remedies: scope ratione materiae 44 Member states and the first level of accountability 45 Member states and the second and third level of accountability 48 Non-member states and non-state third parties 49 4 Access to remedies 52 Access to remedies: scope ratione personae and differential standing 52 Access to remedies: scope ratione fori and differential standing 55 5 Remedies against whom: the scope ratione personae respondentis 60 The claimant’s approach 60 The state of the law 62 The procedural aspects 66 Peacekeeping and peace-enforcement operations: a separate category 68 6 The potential outcome of remedies: scope ratione remedii 70 Judicial remedies 70 First-level remedies 73 PART II • PROCEDURAL ASPECTS OF REMEDIAL ACTION AGAINST INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS 77 7 Introduction to procedural aspects of remedial action against international organisations 79 8 Procedural aspects of remedial action by member states 82 Exhaustion of internal remedies 82 Differences over privileges and immunities 84 The holding-harmless clause 86 The holding-harmless clause and peacekeeping operations 87 Diplomatic protection vis-à-vis the international organisation 89 Diplomatic protection and the exhaustion of internal remedies 92 Disputes involving staff members 94 9 Procedural aspects of remedial action by staff members 97 The present system of protection 97 Challenging legislative decisions 100 The review system 102 10 Procedural aspects of remedial action by private claimants 104 Contractual liability claims 105 The overall picture 105 Sub-contracting 108 Arbitration 109 Tort liability claims 112 Insurance and self-insurance 112 Operational activities 113 Peacekeeping operations as a separate category: the ONUC case 113 The conditions of control and command 115 Limitation of third-party liability 118 The claims review boards 119 11 Procedural obstacles for representational non-governmental organisations 122 Non-governmental organisations and international organisations: an ambivalent relationship 122 Lack of locus standi for representational non-governmental organisations 123 Representational non-governmental organisations presenting their views before international courts and tribunals 124 12 Procedural obstacles common to remedial action by non-state claimants 130 The jurisdictional immunity of international organisations before domestic courts 130 International organisations before domestic courts 132 Judicial abstention by domestic courts 133 Judicial activism by domestic courts 137 The burden of proof and evidence 141 Disclosure of information and documents 142 Proof and evidence before international criminal tribunals 145 PART III • SUBSTANTIVE OUTCOME OF REMEDIAL ACTION AGAINST INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS 149 13 General features of remedial outcome 151 Orders for specific performance 153 Declaratory judgments 156 Pecuniary remedies 157 Ex gratia payments 158 Non-pecuniary remedies 158 Punitive damages 160 Costs and attorneys’ fees 161 14 Remedial outcome for staff members 163 General picture 163 A variety of remedies 165 Compensation 167 The problem of costs 170 15 Remedial outcome for private claimants 172 Contractual liability claims 172 Procurement-related arbitration cases 173 Tort liability claims 176 Counterclaims 178 Peacekeeping operations 178 Ex gratia payments 181 PART IV • ALTERNATIVE REMEDIAL ACTION AGAINST INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND OPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE 183 16 Introduction to alternative remedial action against international organisations and options for the future 185 17 Pre-remedial action 188 18 Non-legal alternative remedial action 193 The ombudsman model 194 The inspection panel model 197 The World Bank Inspection Panel 198 The World Bank’s 1996 Clarifications and the 1999 Conclusions 200 The World Bank Inspection Panel as an accountability mechanism 201 The World Bank Inspection Panel as a model 203 Commissions of Inquiry 206 The potential remedial effect of Commissions of Inquiry 206 Two recent examples:the reports on Srebrenica and on Rwanda 209 19 Amendment of existing judicial remedies 214 International administrative tribunals 215 The UN internal system of justice: the 1995 proposals 215 The jurisdiction of international administrative tribunals 218 Denial of justice 219 An appeal procedure 220 Prospective and retrospective approaches 222 The potential role of domestic courts 224 Waiver of immunity and the balance of interests 224 The obligation to provide alternative modes of settlement 225 Domestic courts as an appropriate forum 229 The solution offered by Reinisch 231 The potential role of arbitration proceedings 235 Arbitration between states and international organisations 236 Arbitration between non-state entities and international organisations 238 20 An inevitable role for the International Court of Justice 240 Indirect remedial opportunity in an inter-state dispute before the Court 242 (In)direct remedial opportunity by way of a (binding) Advisory Opinion 244 Advisory Opinions under the 1946 General Convention: the right of initiative 246 Remedial protection 250 Direct remedial action by wider access to the Court: amending Article 252 The need for change 252 The 1997 proposals 253 Policy reasons 254 The amendment of the jurisdiction ratione personae: which international organisations should be granted locus standi? 257 The amendment of the jurisdiction ratione materiae 261 Guatemala’s proposal 261 Costa Rica’s proposal 263 Freedom of exclusion 264 Some procedural aspects and rights 266 Provisional measures of protection 268 Intervention 268 Amicus curiae 270 Locus standi for non-state entities:representational non-governmental organisations and individuals? 271 How can the necessary changes be brought about? 272 Conclusion 279 Bibliography 287 Index 295 International Organisations Have Become Major Players On The International Scene, Whose Acts And Activities Affect Individuals, Companies And States. Damage To Interests Or Violation Of Rights Sometimes Occur (such As During Peacekeeping Operations, For Example). Karel Wellens Considers What Remedies Are Available To Potential Claimants Such As Private Contractors, Staff Members Or, Indeed, Anyone Suffering Damage As A Result Of Their Actions. Can They Turn To An Ombudsman Or National Courts, Or Do They Have To Rely On Support By Their Own State? Are The Remedies Provided By International Organizations Adequate? Wellens' Conclusions Include Suggestions For Alternative Remedial Options In The Future. Pt. I. General Features Of Remedies Against International Organisations -- 1. The Accountability Regime For International Organisations -- 2. Remedies Against International Organisations -- 3. The Different Levels Of Accountability And The Appropriateness Of Various Remedies: Scope Ratione Materiae -- 4. Access To Remedies -- 5. Remedies Against Whom: The Scope Ratione Personae Respondentis -- 6. The Potential Outcome Of Remedies: Scope Ratione Remedii -- Pt. Ii. Procedural Aspects Of Remedial Action Against International Organisations -- 7. Introduction To Procedural Aspects Of Remedial Action Against International Organisations -- 8. Procedural Aspects Of Remedial Action By Member States -- 9. Procedural Aspects Of Remedial Action By Staff Members -- 10. Procedural Aspects Of Remedial Action By Private Claimants -- 11. Procedural Obstacles For Representational Non-governmental Organisations -- 12. Procedural Obstacles Common To Remedial Action By Non-state Claimants -- Pt. Iii. Substantive Outcome Of Remedial Action Against International Organisations -- 13. General Features Of Remedial Outcome -- 14. Remedial Outcome For Staff Members -- 15. Remedial Outcome For Private Claimants -- Pt. Iv. Alternative Remedial Action Against International Organisations And Options For The Future -- 16. Introduction To Alternative Remedial Action Against International Organisations And Options For The Future -- 17. Pre-remedial Action -- 18. Non-legal Alternative Remedial Action -- 19. Amendment Of Existing Judicial Remedies -- 20. An Inevitable Role For The International Court Of Justice. Karel Wellens. Includes Bibliographical References (p. 271-278) And Index. International organizations have become major players on the international scene, whose acts and activities affect individuals, companies and states. Damage to interests or violation of rights sometimes occur (such as during peacekeeping operations, for example). Karel Wellens considers what remedies are available to potential claimants such as private contractors, staff members or, indeed, anyone suffering damage as a result of their actions. Can they turn to an Ombudsman or national courts, or do they have to rely on support by their own state? Are the remedies provided by international organizations adequate? Wellens'conclusions include suggestions for alternative remedial options in the future. International organizations have become major players on the international scene, whose acts and activities affect individuals, companies and states. Damage to interests or violation of rights sometimes occur (such as during peacekeeping operations, for example). Karel Wellens considers what remedies are available to potential claimants such as private contractors, staff members or, indeed, anyone suffering damage as a result of their actions. Can they turn to an Ombudsman or national courts, or do they have to rely on support by their own state? Are the remedies provided by international organizations adequate? Wellens' conclusions include suggestions for alternative remedial options in the future As for remedies against states and individuals - the accountability of the former always having been firmly rooted as one of the cornerstones of the international legal and political order, and the accountability of individuals also having entered into the body of international law - any discussion on the more procedural and consequential issues falling within the scope of redress against international organisations has to be correctly placed against the background of their accountability regime. International organisations are major players on the international scene, whose acts and activities affect individuals, companies and states. Damage to interests or violation of rights sometimes occur (such as during peacekeeping operations). Are the remedies provided by international organizations adequate? Wellens' study includes suggestions for alternative remedial options