Religious Practice and Cultural Construction of Animal Worship in Egypt from the Early Dynastic to the New Kingdom: Ritual Forms, Material Display, Historical Development (Archaeopress Egyptology, 36)

Religious Practice and Cultural Construction of Animal Worship in Egypt from the Early Dynastic to the New Kingdom presents an articulated historical interpretation of Egyptian ‘animal worship’ – intended as a segment of religious practice focused on the mobilisation of selected animals within strategically designed ritual contexts – from the Early Dynastic to the New Kingdom, and offers a new understanding of its chronological development through a fresh review of pertinent archaeological and textual data. The goal is twofold: (1) to re-conceptualise the notion of ‘animal worship’ on firm theoretical and material bases, reassessing its heuristic value as a tool for analysis; (2) to demonstrate, accordingly, that ‘animal worship’ did not represent a late degeneration of traditional religion, socially (popular cult) and thematically (animal mummies and burials) restricted, but a complex domain of religious practice with a longer history and a larger variety of configurations than usually assumed. Cover 1 Contents page 5 Preface and Acknowledgements 7 Dedication 9 Abbreviations 10 List of Figures 11 List of Tables 13 Introducing Animal Worship 15 1.1 Animal worship and ancient Egyptian religion: articulation of the problem 15 1.2 Thesis, goals, and limitations of the present study 16 1.3 History of research and status quaestionis 18 1.3.1 The memory-horizon: the role of literary tradition 18 1.3.2 The research-horizon: problems and perspectives 21 1.3.3 Animal worship: the ‘Standard Model’ 29 Figure 1.1. Diagram illustrating the conceptual background of the Egyptological ‘Standard Model’ of Egyptian ‘animal worship’. 30 Table 1.1. ‘Animal worship’ and Egyptian religion according to the ‘Standard Model’. 30 Figure 1.2. Historical development of ‘animal worship’ according to the ‘Standard Model’. Slightly modified from Colonna 2017: Figure 1. 31 1.4 Theory and methodology 32 1.4.1 The problem of a definition and the definition of a problem 32 1.4.2 The practical dimension: religious practice and ritual 36 1.4.3 The historical dimension: display and decorum 37 1.4.4 ‘Animal worship’: designing an Alternative Model 39 Figure 1.3. Diagram illustrating the conceptual background of the ‘Alternative Model’. 39 Figure 1.1. Diagram illustrating the conceptual background of the Egyptological ‘Standard Model’ of Egyptian ‘animal worship’. 30 Figure 1.2. Historical development of ‘animal worship’ according to the ‘Standard Model’. Slightly modified from Colonna 2017: Figure 1. 31 Figure 1.3. Diagram illustrating the conceptual background of the ‘Alternative Model’. 39 Part I Presenting the Evidence 42 Part I Presenting the Evidence 42 Figure 2.1. Sealing from Tomb 414, Tarkhan (Cairo JE 43798). After Petrie 1913: pl. II.4. 43 The Early Dynastic 43 2.1 Royal evidence 43 Figure 2.1. Sealing from Tomb 414, Tarkhan (Cairo JE 43798). After Petrie 1913: pl. II.4. 43 Figure 2.2. Inscription on the Michailides Bowl. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Simpson 1957: fig. 2). 46 Figure 2.3. Wooden label of king Aha from Umm el-Qa‘ab B18/19 (Philadelphia Penn Museum E9396). After Petrie 1901: pl. X.2. 46 Figure 2.4. Sealing from Tomb 3035, Saqqara. After Emery 1938: fig. 26. 47 Figure 2.5. Painted limestone ostracon from Tomb 3035, Saqqara (Cairo JE 70149). Photo by A. Colonna. 47 Figure 2.6. Ivory label of king Den from Umm el-Qa‘ab T. After Petrie 1901: pl. VII.8. 49 Figure 2.7. Wooden label of king Qaa from Umm el-Qa‘ab Q (Ab K 1440). Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli. 49 2.2 Titles and personal names 51 Table 2.1. Early Dynastic Tiernamen 52 2.3 The Classical tradition 54 2.4 Summary 56 Figure 2.2. Inscription on the Michailides Bowl. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Simpson 1957: fig. 2). 46 Figure 2.3. Wooden label of king Aha from Umm el-Qa‘ab B18/19 (Philadelphia Penn Museum E9396). After Petrie 1901: pl. X.2. 46 Figure 2.4. Sealing from Tomb 3035, Saqqara. After Emery 1938: fig. 26. 47 Figure 2.5. Painted limestone ostracon from Tomb 3035, Saqqara (Cairo JE 70149). Photo by A. Colonna. 47 Figure 2.6. Ivory label of king Den from Umm el-Qa‘ab T. After Petrie 1901: pl. VII.8. 49 Figure 2.7. Wooden label of king Qaa from Umm el-Qa‘ab Q (Ab K 1440). Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli. 49 The Old Kingdom 58 3.1 Royal and temple evidence 58 Figure 3.1a. Relief from the Valley Temple of the Snefru’s bent pyramid, Dashur. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Fakhry 1961, fig. 96). 60 Figure 3.1b. Relief from the Valley Temple of the Snefru’s bent pyramid, Dashur. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Schott 1972, 32). 60 Figure 3.2a. Block from the pyramid temple of Sahura, Abusir. After Borchardt 1913, 47. 65 Figure 3.2b. Fragments from the mortuary temple of Unas, Saqqara. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Ćwiek 2003: fig. 76). 65 Figure 3.3. Fragments from the solar temple of Niuserra, Abu Ghurob: a: visit to the chapel of the Apis bull (fr. no. 251); b: procession (fr. no. 252); c: inscription fragment (fr. no. 255). After von Bissing-Kees 1928, pl. 15. 68 Figure 3.4. Hypothetical sequence of episodes according to Kees’ restoration of fragments 251, 255, 255. 71 Figure 3.5. ‘Scene of the pelicans’ (Berlin, ÄM 20037) from the so-called ‘Room of the Seasons’, sun-temple of Niuserra, Abu Ghurob. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli. 74 3.2 Private inscriptions: titles and biographies 77 Table 3.1. Old Kingdom officials and titles related to individual animals. 79 Table 3.2. Old Kingdom officials and titles related to multiple animals. 79 3.2.1 Early Old Kingdom (3rd-4th dynasties) 80 3.2.2 Late Old Kingdom – Early First Intermediate Period (5th-9th dynasties) 83 3.3 Personal names 87 3.4 Funerary domains 91 Table 3.3. Old Kingdom personal names incorporating Hp (‘Apis’). 92 Table 3.4. Old Kingdom personal names incorporating Tntt (‘Tjentet-cow[s]). 92 Table 3.5. Old Kingdom personal names incorporating bA (‘sacred ram’). 93 Table 3.6. List of domains mentioning individual animal agencies. 93 3.5 Pyramid Texts 94 3.6 Architectural evidence 100 3.7 Summary 101 Figure 3.1a. Relief from the Valley Temple of the Snefru’s bent pyramid, Dashur. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Fakhry 1961, fig. 96). 60 Figure 3.1b. Relief from the Valley Temple of the Snefru’s bent pyramid, Dashur. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Schott 1972, 32). 60 Figure 3.2a. Block from the pyramid temple of Sahura, Abusir. After Borchardt 1913, 47. 65 Figure 3.2b. Fragments from the mortuary temple of Unas, Saqqara. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Ćwiek 2003: fig. 76). 65 Figure 3.3. Fragments from the solar temple of Niuserra, Abu Ghurob: a: visit to the chapel of the Apis bull (fr. no. 251); b: procession (fr. no. 252); c: inscription fragment (fr. no. 255). After von Bissing-Kees 1928, pl. 15. 68 Figure 3.4. Hypothetical sequence of episodes according to Kees’ restoration of fragments 251, 255, 255. 71 Figure 3.5. ‘Scene of the pelicans’ (Berlin, ÄM 20037) from the so-called ‘Room of the Seasons’, sun-temple of Niuserra, Abu Ghurob. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli. 74 From the First Intermediate Period to the Middle Kingdom 103 4.1 Titles 103 4.2 Private inscriptions 107 4.3 Personal names 117 4.4 Coffin Texts 119 4.5 Summary 123 Figure 4.1. Passage of the biography of Henqu II from Tomb N67, Deir el-Gebrawi. After Davies 1902: pl. XXIV. 108 Figure 4.2. Relief Relief scene from the funerary chapel (B1) of Senbi, Meir. After Blackman 1914, pl. XI. 112 Fig. 4.3 Relief scene from the tomb Ukh-hotep son of Senbi (B2), Meir. After Blackman 1915, pl. XV. 114 The New Kingdom 125 5.1 The Apis bull at Memphis 125 5.1.1 The Serapeum during the New Kingdom 126 Figure 5.3 Wall painting from Tomb D (Horemheb) showing the Apis bull and the four sons of Horus, Saqqara. After Mariette 1857: pl. 3. 128 Figure 5.4. Wall painting from Tomb G (Ramses II) showing the king and prince Khaemwaset before Apis. After Mariette 1857: pl. 8. 128 Table 5.1. Conspectus of the New Kingdom burials of the Apis bulls (‘Isolated Tombs’ and ‘Lessere Vaults’). 135 Table 5.2 Main epithets and forms of predication of the Apis bull attested on the inscribed material from the New Kingdom tombs of the Serapeum. 136 Figure 5.1. One of the New Kingdom ‘Isolated Tomb’ as shown in Mariette’s reconstruction. After Mariette 1882: 117, fig. 1. 126 Figure 5.2 Mariettes’s drawing of the Greater Vaults of the Serapeum. After Mariette 1882: 119, fig. 3. 126 5.1.2 The stelae of the Serapeum 137 Table 5.3. Conspectus of the Apis stelae from the New Kingdom tombs of the Serapeum. 139 Figure 5.5. Relief from the Red Chapel of Hatshepsut showing the ‘Running of the Apis bull’. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli. 140 5.1.3 Other attestations 140 5.2 The Mnevis bull at Heliopolis 142 5.2.1 The New Kingdom necropolis of the Mnevis bull 143 Table 5.4. Conspectus of the New Kingdom burials of the Mnevis bull. 144 Table 5.5. Main epithets and forms of predication of the Mnevis bull attested on the inscribed material from the New Kingdom tombs of Arab el-Tawil. 144 Figure 5.6. Detail of the donation stela of Thutmosis III (Cairo JE 65830), Heliopolis (?). Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Moursi 1987: abb. 4, taf. 9.4). 146 Figure 5.7. Stela München ÄS 14000, acquired in Cairo. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Moursi 1983: abb. 2, taf. VI). 146 5.2.2 The stelae of the Mnevis bull 146 Table 5.6. Conspectus of the Mnevis stelae from New Kingdom Heliopolis. 148 5.2.3 Other attestations 149 5.3 The ‘Fish-stelae’ from Mendes 152 Figure 5.8. Fish stela (Field No. F 137+169), Mendes. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Redford 2004: pl. XXIX, CAT#425). 153 Figure 5.9. Fish stela (Field No. Q 8), Mendes. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Redford 2004: pl. XXIX#450). 153 5.4 The fish necropolis at Gurob 155 5.5 The ‘Salakhana Trove’ at Asyut 157 Figure 5.10. Ramesside stela Berlin 19594, Asyut. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Durisch 1993: fig. 2). 159 Figure 5.12. Ramesside stela Louvre AF 6949, Asyut. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Durisch 1993: fig. 1). 159 Figure 5.11. Ramesside stela BM 1430, Asyut. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Durisch 1993: fig. 6). 159 5.6 Bulls in the Theban region 161 5.6.1 The Buchis bull at Armant 162 5.6.2 The ‘White bull’ of the Min festival 163 5.7 The ‘Crocodile-stelae’ from Sumenu 165 Figure 5.13. Ramesside stela from Al Mahamid Qibli. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Bakry 1971: taf. XXVIIb). 167 Figure 5.14. Ramesside stela dedicated to Sobek Lord of Sumenu, unknown provenance. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Fazzini 1972: fig. 23). 167 5.8 The inscribed jar fragment Munich Ä 1383 168 Figure 5.1. One of the New Kingdom ‘Isolated Tomb’ as shown in Mariette’s reconstruction. After Mariette 1882: 117, fig. 1. 126 Figure 5.2 Mariettes’s drawing of the Greater Vaults of the Serapeum. After Mariette 1882: 119, fig. 3. 126 Figure 5.3 Wall painting from Tomb D (Horemheb) showing the Apis bull and the four sons of Horus, Saqqara. After Mariette 1857: pl. 3. 128 Figure 5.4. Wall painting from Tomb G (Ramses II) showing the king and prince Khaemwaset before Apis. After Mariette 1857: pl. 8. 128 Figure 5.5. Relief from the Red Chapel of Hatshepsut showing the ‘Running of the Apis bull’. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli. 140 Figure 5.6. Detail of the donation stela of Thutmosis III (Cairo JE 65830), Heliopolis (?). Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Moursi 1987: abb. 4, taf. 9.4). 146 Figure 5.7. Stela München ÄS 14000, acquired in Cairo. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Moursi 1983: abb. 2, taf. VI). 146 Figure 5.8. Fish stela (Field No. F 137+169), Mendes. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Redford 2004: pl. XXIX, CAT#425). 153 Figure 5.9. Fish stela (Field No. Q 8), Mendes. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Redford 2004: pl. XXIX#450). 153 Figure 5.10. Ramesside stela Berlin 19594, Asyut. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Durisch 1993: fig. 2). 159 Figure 5.11. Ramesside stela BM 1430, Asyut. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Durisch 1993: fig. 6). 159 Figure 5.12. Ramesside stela Louvre AF 6949, Asyut. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Durisch 1993: fig. 1). 159 Figure 5.13. Ramesside stela from Al Mahamid Qibli. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Bakry 1971: taf. XXVIIb). 167 Figure 5.14. Ramesside stela dedicated to Sobek Lord of Sumenu, unknown provenance. Graphic elaboration by F. Iannarilli (after Fazzini 1972: fig. 23). 167 Part II Synthesis and Reconstruction 172 Modelling Animal Worship 173 6.1 Introduction: etic and emic 173 Table 6.1. Categorisation of sacralised animals. 174 6.2 The etic perspective: single and multiple animals 174 6.3 The emic perspective: Egyptian concepts and modes of predication 175 6.4 The sacralisation of the animals: a ritual and semantic process 181 6.5 Reconfiguring ‘animal worship’: practice, display, history 188 6.5.1 Rethinking ‘animal worship’: conceptual analysis 188 6.5.1.1 Animals 189 Table 6.2. The semantic framework of the Egyptian category nTr and its hierarchical structure. 192 6.5.1.2 Actions 192 Table 6.3. Contexts of ‘animal worship’ as religious practice. 194 Table 6.4. ‘Animal worship’ as an integrated arena of religious practice between state and non-state religion. 197 6.5.1.3 Meaning and interpretation 201 6.5.2 Reconstructing ‘animal worship’: historical synthesis 209 Table 6.5. The three macro-phases of ‘animal worship’ and their distinctive material configurations. 209 Figure 6.1. Historical development of ‘animal worship’ according to the ‘Alternative Model’. Slightly modified from Colonna 2017: Figure 2. 210 6.6 Conclusions 218 Figure 6.1. Historical development of ‘animal worship’ according to the ‘Alternative Model’. Slightly modified from Colonna 2017: Figure 2. 210 Bibliography 220 Index 237 Back cover 243 Egyptian Animal Worship,Egyptian Religion,Religious Practice,Sacred Animals