Reconstruction of the Tradition: Tourism and Authentication of Heritage in China (Countries and Cultures of the World)

This book explores the interaction between heritage authorization and tourism development in China, and shows how this interaction influences the social relations between external agents and local actors in two World Heritage sites: the Shaolin Scenic Area and Ancient City of Pingyao. Various theories including Anthony Giddens'theories on modernity, time-space distanciation, disembedding, and reflexivity are applied and critiqued in the context of the case studies. It uncovers that the reconstruction of tradition at both case sites is the emergence of elements of a commercialized, theme-park environment. This situation problematizes the notion of authenticity, which is claimed in authorized concepts of heritage. Furthermore, it shows contemporary reconstruction of tradition and demonstrates current transformative processes, in which external agents with heritage authority have an advantage over local residents in tourism zones who are financially, spatially, and culturally disempowered. Contents 7 List of Figures 9 List of Maps 11 List of Tables 13 Preface 15 Acronyms 17 Chapter 1 19 Introduction 19 Culture, Traditional Culture and Tradition-Style Culture 24 Protection, Preservation and Conservation of Heritage 25 Heritage Authorization, Heritage Experts, and Tourism-Driven Heritage Authorization 26 Chapter 2 29 Theoretical Framework on Heritage, Tourism and Modernity 29 2.1. Modernity and Tradition 29 Modernity 29 Tradition 33 2.2. Modernity, Tourism and Heritage 36 Modernity and Tourist Destinations 36 Tourist Destinations as a Socio-spatial Concept 37 Interaction between External Tourists and Local Agents in Tourist Destinations 38 Modernity, Cultural Heritage and Authenticity 41 Modernity and Cultural Heritage 41 Modernity and Authenticity 45 Modernity and Heritage-protected Tourist Destinations 50 Conclusion 51 Chapter 3 57 Westernization of Chinese Heritage and Its Connection with Tourism Development 57 3.1. Early Westernization of Chinese Heritage and Beginning of Modern Tourism in China (1911-1949) 58 Tradition and the Emergence of Anti-Tradition 58 KMT’s Attitudes to Recognizable Heritage and Emerging Westernization of Chinese Heritage 60 The Beginning of Modern Tourism 62 3.2. Mao’s Era: Radical Socialist Construction of Chinese Heritage and Tourism (1949-1978) 63 Socialist Construction, Traditional Culture and Chinese Heritage (1949-1978) 64 Tourism under Socialist Construction (1949-1978) 69 3.3. Pragmatic Socialist Construction of Chinese Heritage and Its Connection to Tourism (1978-1997) 70 Further Westernization of Chinese Heritage 71 The Boom in Inbound Tourists 75 The Connection of Heritage to Tourism 78 3.4. Further Internationalization of Chinese Heritage and Its Connection to Tourism after 1997 80 Further Internationalization of Chinese Heritage 81 Development of Mass Domestic Tourism 84 The Connection of Heritage to Tourism Development 87 3.5. Theoretical Analysis of Chinese Heritage and Its Connection to Tourism 88 First Chinese Heritage Experts and Their Restoration Methods 88 Tourism-Driven Heritage Authorization Model in China 92 Power Disparity between Experts and Local Residents 95 Conclusion 97 Chapter 4 99 Reinterpretation of Tradition: Tourism and Authentication of Shaolin Culture 99 4.1. Shaolin Historical Culture (496CE to 1978) 99 The Shaolin Temple: The Birthplace of Chan Buddhism 101 Formation of Chan Buddhism: Its Relation with Confucianism and Taoism 102 Shaolin Temple’s Political Engagement with Successive Imperial Powers 103 Contribution of Shaolin Martial Arts to Shaolin Temple’s Political Engagement 105 The Debate over Shaolin Martial Arts 106 The Shaolin Temple 1949-1978 108 4.2. Tourism Policy and Heritage Policy (1978 to 2000) 110 Changing Government Policy 110 Shaolin Community Response 114 The Commercialization of Shaolin Culture 118 4.3. Tourism and Heritage Policies (2000 to 2010) 120 The Beginning of the ‘Authentification’ Project 121 Policies of the Relocation in the External Temple Area 123 Internal Temple Authentification Project 125 The Authentification of Shaolin Culture 129 Differentiating between Shaolin Wushu and Shaolin Kungfu 129 Revitalizing Chan Buddhism in the Shaolin Temple 132 Safeguarding the Shaolin Brand and Authenticity while Commercializing Shaolin Culture 133 Discussion: Heritage and Culture 134 4.4. Tourism Policy and Heritage Policy after 2010 138 Economic and Cultural Conflict among Stakeholders 138 Impacts of the Stakeholder Conflicts 141 4.5. Reconstruction of Shaolin Culture 142 First Transformative Process (from 1978 to 2000): Time-space Distanciation and Disembedding 143 Second Transformative Process (from 2000 to 2010): Time-Space Distanciation, Disembedding and Reflexivity 144 The Current Situation: Reembedding Mechanics and Fragmentation of Shaolin Culture 148 Conclusion 149 Chapter 5 151 Reconstruction of Tradition: Tourism and Authentication of Ancient City of Pingyao 151 5.1. Traditional Features of the ACP before Mao’s Era 152 Economic Aspects 152 Spatial Aspect 154 Cultural Aspect 158 5.2. Influence of Mao’s Radical Socialism on the ACP 161 Spatial Aspect 161 Cultural and Institutional Aspects 164 Socialist Space with Tradition-style and Modern-style Buildings 165 5.3. Heritage Authorization in the ACP (1978-1997) 167 Heritage Policies of the ACP from 1978 to 1997 168 Community Response to Heritage Authentication 174 Analysis of Heritage and Culture 176 5.4. The Influence of IHATD on the ACP after 1997 178 Connection of Heritage Authorization to Tourism 178 Further Authentification: More Relocation of Public Infrastructure and More Heritage Regulations 179 Tourism Policy: Who Funds Who Benefits 180 Cultural Activities and Festivals 184 Community Response to the IHATD 191 Analysis of Heritage and Culture after 1997 196 5.5. Reconstruction of Pingyao Culture 199 The First Transformative Process: Time-Space Distanciation and Disembedding 199 The Second Transformative Process: Time-Space Distanciation and Disembedding 200 Conclusion 201 Chapter 6 203 Institutional Interaction between Heritage Authorization and Tourism Development in China 203 6.1. Institutional Similarities in the Two Cases 203 Heritage Expert System: Exclusiveness 205 Tourism Expert System: Inclusiveness 208 Institutional Interaction between the Two Expert Systems 211 Reflexivity 218 Local Residents 220 Governmental Sector 222 6.2. Differences between the Two Cases 224 Different Positioning 225 Different Heritage and Cultural Forms 226 Different Local Actors 228 Conclusion 229 References 231 About the Authors 255 Index 257 Blank Page 2 This Book Explores The Interaction Between Heritage Authorisation And Tourism Development In China, And Shows How This Interaction Influences The Social Relations Between External Agents And Local Actors In Two World Heritage Sites: The Shaolin Scenic Area And Ancient City Of Pingyao. Various Theories Including Anthony Giddens Theories On Modernity, Time-space Distanciation, Disembedding, And Reflexivity Are Applied And Critiqued In The Context Of The Case Studies. It Uncovers That The Reconstruction Of Tradition At Both Case Sites Is The Emergence Of Elements Of A Commercialised, Theme-park Environment. This Situation Problematises The Notion Of Authenticity, Which Is Claimed In Authorised Concepts Of Heritage. Furthermore, It Shows Contemporary Reconstruction Of Tradition And Demonstrates Current Transformative Processes, In Which External Agents With Heritage Authority Have An Advantage Over Local Residents In Tourism Zones Who Are Financially, Spatially, And Culturally Disempowered.