Recent Trends in Mycological Research: Volume 2: Environmental and Industrial Perspective (Fungal Biology)

Fungi range from being microscopic, single-celled yeasts to multicellular and heterotrophic in nature. Fungal communities have been found in vast ranges of environmental conditions. They can be associated with plants epiphytically, endophytically, or rhizospherically. Extreme environments represent unique ecosystems that harbor novel biodiversity of fungal communities. Interest in the exploration of fungal diversity has been spurred by the fact that fungi perform numerous functions integral in sustaining the biosphere, ranging from nutrient cycling to environmental detoxification, which involves processes like augmentation, supplementation, and recycling of plant nutrients--a particularly important process in sustainable agriculture. Fungal communities from natural and extreme habitats help promote plant growth, enhance crop yield, and soil fertility via direct or indirect plant growth promoting (PGP) mechanisms of solubilization of phosphorus, potassium, and zinc, production of ammonia, hydrogen cyanides, phytohormones, Fe-chelating compounds, extracellular hydrolytic enzymes, and bioactive secondary metabolites. These PGP fungi could be used as biofertilizers, bioinoculants, and biocontrol agents in place of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in eco-friendly manners for sustainable agriculture and environments. Along with agricultural applications, medically important fungi play significant role for human health. Fungal communities are useful for sustainable environments as they are used for bioremediation which is the use of microorganisms' metabolism to degrading waste contaminants (sewage, domestic, and industrial effluents) into non-toxic or less toxic materials by natural biological processes. Fungi could be used as mycoremediation for the future of environmental sustainability. Fungi and fungal products have the biochemical and ecological capability to degrade environmental organic chemicals and to decrease the risk associated with metals, semi-metals, and noble metals either by chemical modification or by manipulating chemical bioavailability. The two volumes of "Recent Trends in Mycological Research” aim to provide an understanding of fungal communities from diverse environmental habitats and their potential applications in agriculture, medical, environments and industry. The books are useful to scientists, researchers, and students involved in microbiology, biotechnology, agriculture, molecular biology, environmental biology and related subjects. Foreword Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Contents Contributors Editor Authors Chapter 1: Bioprospecting and Applications of Fungi: A Game Changer in Present Scenario 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Fungi 1.2.1 Applications of Fungi 1.2.1.1 Bioremediation of Contaminated Water 1.2.1.2 Bioremediation of Contaminated Soil 1.2.1.3 Biodegradation of Xenobiotic 1.3 Next Generation Promoter of Cereal Plants 1.3.1 Fungal Pigments 1.4 Fungal Siderophores 1.5 Fungal Enzymes 1.5.1 Various Prospects of Fungal Enzymes 1.5.1.1 Dishwashing and Household Detergents 1.5.1.2 Animal Feeds 1.5.1.3 Textile Industries 1.5.1.4 Cosmetics 1.5.1.5 Dental Care 1.5.1.6 Membrane Cleaning 1.6 Mycotoxins 1.6.1 Applications of Mycotoxins 1.6.1.1 Ribotoxin 1.6.1.2 Patulin 1.6.1.3 Ergot Alkaloids 1.6.1.4 Yeast Killer Toxins 1.7 Limitation of Fungal Biomolecules and Its Future Prospect 1.8 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Fungal Communities for Bioremediation of Contaminated Soil for Sustainable Environments 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Fungal Communities Participating in Bioremediation of Contaminated Soils 2.3 Mechanisms of Bioremediation by Different Fungal Communities 2.3.1 Fungal Mechanisms of Bioremediation 2.3.2 Mechanisms of Bioremediation by Mycorrhizal Fungi 2.4 Factors Affecting the Efficacy of Bioremediation by Fungi 2.4.1 Abiotic/Environmental Factors 2.4.2 Chemical Factors 2.4.3 Biotic Factors 2.5 Process of Implementing Fungal Bioremediation 2.6 Limitations of Using Fungi for Bioremediation 2.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References Chapter 3: White-Rot Fungi for Bioremediation of Polychlorinated Biphenyl Contaminated Soil 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Site Characterization 3.3 White-Rot Fungi 3.3.1 Advantages of White-Rot Fungi 3.4 Lignin Peroxidase (Ligninase) Mechanism of White-Rot Fungi 3.4.1 Direct Oxidation 3.5 Oxidized Pollutant Degradation 3.6 Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Compounds and Their Mode of Actions 3.6.1 Mode of Actions 3.7 Biodegradation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 3.7.1 Biodegradation in the Environment 3.7.2 Biodegradation of PCB in Engineered Systems 3.8 Microbiology and Biochemistry of PCB Biodegradation 3.8.1 Aerobic Fungal Co-Metabolism 3.9 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Fungal Secondary Metabolites for Bioremediation of Hazardous Heavy Metals 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Bioremediation Mediated Using Fungi 4.2 Pollutant Catabolism Using Fungal Diversity 4.2.1 White-Rot Fungi 4.2.2 Marine Fungi 4.2.3 Extremophilic Fungi 4.3 Symbiotic Association Between Fungi, Plants, and Bacteria 4.4 Fungi Potential of Bioremediation 4.5 Toxic Recalcitrant Compounds and Their Bioremediation 4.5.1 Heavy Metals Bioremediation 4.5.2 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and Their Bioremediation 4.6 Fungal Features for Detoxification and Bioremediation of Toxic Waste 4.6.1 Bioremediation Using Fungal Enzymes 4.6.1.1 Laccase 4.6.1.2 Catalase 4.6.1.3 Peroxidase 4.6.1.4 Fungal Cytochromes in Bioremediation 4.7 Fungal Bioremediation and Their Technological Advances 4.8 Application of Fungal Proteomics and Genomics in Bioremediation 4.9 Degradation Pathways in Fungi 4.10 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 5: Fungal Enzymes: Degradation and Detoxification of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Sources of Organic and Inorganic Environmental Pollutants 5.3 Fungal Mechanism Involved in Degradation and Detoxification of Pollutants 5.4 Fungal Enzymes Involved in Degradation and Detoxification Processes 5.4.1 Laccase 5.4.2 Peroxidase 5.4.2.1 Lignin Peroxidase 5.4.2.2 Manganese Peroxidase 5.4.2.3 Versatile Peroxidase 5.4.3 Cytochrome Monooxygenases 5.4.4 Catalase 5.4.5 Unspecific Peroxygenases 5.5 Metabolism of Xenobiotic Degradation by Fungal Enzymes 5.5.1 Laccase 5.5.2 Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenase 5.5.3 Peroxidase 5.5.3.1 Lignin Peroxidase 5.5.3.2 Manganese Peroxidase 5.6 Strategies for Enhancing Fungal Remediation of Recalcitrant Compounds 5.7 Conclusion References Chapter 6: Fungal Communities for the Remediation of Environmental Pollutants 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Conventional Remediation Process 6.3 Fungi for Potential Bioremediation 6.3.1 Mechanism of Actions 6.4 Fungal Bioremediation of Heavy Metals 6.5 Fungal Bioremediation of Dyes 6.6 Fungal Bioremediation of Aromatic Compounds 6.7 Fungal Bioremediation of Pesticides 6.8 Fungal Bioremediation of Organic Compounds 6.9 Fungal Bioremediation of Oil Contaminants 6.10 Fungal Bioremediation of Plastics 6.11 Challenges of Fungal Bioremediation 6.12 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 7: Microbial Consortia for Effective Degradation and Decolorization of Textile Effluents 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Structure and Classification of Textile Dyes 7.3 Dye Degrading Microorganisms 7.4 Enzymes Involved in Dye Degradation 7.4.1 Laccases (Phenol Oxidase) 7.4.2 Lignin Peroxidase 7.4.3 Manganese Peroxidase 7.4.4 Tyrosinase 7.4.5 Anthraquinone Reductase 7.5 Isolation and Identification of Dye Degrading Microorganisms 7.5.1 Sample Collection 7.5.2 Physicochemical Properties 7.5.2.1 Temperature 7.5.2.2 pH 7.5.2.3 Conductivity 7.5.2.4 Turbidity 7.5.2.5 Dissolved Oxygen 7.5.2.6 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 7.5.2.7 Chemical Oxygen Demand 7.5.2.8 Total Dissolved Solids 7.5.2.9 Total Suspended Solids 7.5.2.10 Phosphates 7.5.2.11 Nitrates 7.5.2.12 Chlorides 7.5.3 Isolation of Dye Degrading Bacteria From Textile Effluents 7.5.3.1 Serial Dilution Method 7.5.3.2 Secondary Screening 7.5.4 Identification of Selected Bacterial Strains 7.5.4.1 Biochemical Methods 7.5.4.2 Molecular Identification 7.5.4.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy 7.5.5 Optimization of Decolorization Process 7.5.5.1 Decolorization Assay 7.5.5.2 Development of Bacterial Consortia 7.5.5.3 Optimization of Dye Decolorization 7.5.5.4 Extraction of Biotransformed Products 7.5.6 Physicochemical Analysis of Effluents 7.5.7 Monitoring of Biotransformed Compounds of Acid Blue 25 7.5.8 Toxicological Studies 7.5.9 Phytotoxicity Studies 7.6 Conclusions References Chapter 8: Fungi in Remediation of Hazardous Wastes: Current Status and Future Outlook 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Bioremediation 8.2.1 Types of Bioremediation 8.2.1.1 Biostimulation 8.2.1.2 Bioattenuation (Natural Attenuation) 8.2.1.3 Bioaugmentation 8.2.2 Advantage of Bioremediation 8.2.3 Limitations of Bioremediation 8.2.4 Fungi as Agents of Bioremediation 8.3 Sources of Heavy Metal Contamination 8.4 Effect of Climatic Variations Microorganisms Mediated Bioremediation 8.5 Rhizosphere Engineering 8.6 Genetics Involved in Biotransformation of Heavy Metals 8.7 Genetically Engineered Bioinoculants 8.7.1 Rhizobia Inoculant 8.7.2 Azospirillum Inoculant 8.7.3 Mycorrhizal Fungi Inoculant 8.8 Advanced Technologies of Microbial Sensing 8.9 Future Outlook 8.10 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Applications of Myconanoparticles in Remediation: Current Status and Future Challenges 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Pollution Control Using Nanotechnology 9.2.1 Poly Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (PCH) Bioremediation 9.2.2 Hydrophobic Compounds Bioremediation 9.3 Mycoremediation of Metals/Metalloids 9.4 Mycoremediation of Toxic Weapons 9.5 Myconanoparticles: the Nanoparticles from Fungi 9.6 Future Prospects of Fungal Bioremediation 9.7 Conclusions References Chapter 10: Marine Fungal Communities: Metabolic Engineering for Secondary Metabolites and Their Industrial Applications 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Biodiversity of Fungal Communities 10.3 Marine Fungi 10.4 Biotechnological Applications of Fungal Secondary Metabolites 10.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 11: Industrially Important Fungal Enzymes: Productions and Applications 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Why Do Fungi Synthesis Enzymes? 11.3 Enzymes for Carbon and Nitrogen Assimilation 11.4 Industrial Production of Fungal Enzymes 11.4.1 Selection of Microorganisms and Production Process 11.4.1.1 Submerged Fermentation (SmF) 11.4.1.2 Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) 11.4.2 Recovery and Purification of Fungal Enzymes 11.5 Applications of Fungal Enzymes in Industries 11.5.1 Amylase 11.5.2 Glucosidase 11.5.3 Glucose Oxidase 11.5.4 Protease 11.5.5 Pectinase 11.5.6 Cellulase 11.5.7 Invertase 11.5.8 Laccase 11.5.9 Ligninase 11.5.10 Lipase 11.5.11 Chitinase 11.5.12 Xylanase 11.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References Chapter 12: Fungal Exopolysaccharides: Production and Biotechnological Industrial Applications in Food and Allied Sectors 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Fungal Exopolysaccharides 12.2.1 Chitin and Chitosan 12.2.1.1 Fungal Species Producing Chitin and Chitosan 12.2.1.2 Biosynthesis of Chitin and Chitosan 12.2.1.3 Applications of Chitin and Chitosan in Food and Allied Sector 12.2.2 Pullulan 12.2.2.1 Fungal Strains Producing Pullulans 12.2.2.2 Pullulan Production by Microbial Fermentation 12.2.2.3 Applications of Pullulan 12.2.3 Elsinan 12.2.3.1 Fungal Production of Elsinan 12.2.3.2 Applications of Elsinan 12.2.4 Galactomannan 12.2.4.1 β-Glucans 12.2.4.2 Lentinan 12.2.4.3 Schizophyllan 12.2.4.4 Scleroglucan 12.2.4.5 Pleuran 12.2.4.6 Grifolan 12.2.4.7 Applications of β-Glucan in the Food Industry 12.3 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Neoteric Trends in Medicinal Plant-AMF Association and Elicited Accumulation of Phytochemicals 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Secondary Metabolites 13.2.1 Plant Secondary Metabolites 13.2.1.1 Terpenoids 13.2.1.2 Alkaloids 13.2.1.3 Plant Phenolics 13.2.2 Plant Secondary Metabolites: Transport, Storage, and Turnover 13.2.3 Biotic and Abiotic Factors and Accumulation of Secondary Metabolites 13.3 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) 13.4 Agronomic and Ecological Roles of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi 13.5 AMF Positively Interferes with the Secondary Metabolite Accumulation in Medicinal Plants 13.6 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Fungal Endophytes from Orchidaceae: Diversity and Applications 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Fungal Endophytes 14.3 Orchidaceae 14.4 Diversity of Fungal Endophytes from Orchidaceae 14.4.1 Fungal Endophytes from Bulbophyllum 14.4.2 Fungal Endophytes from Dendrobium 14.4.3 Fungal Endophytes from Cymbidium 14.4.4 Fungal Endophytes from Phalaenopsis 14.4.5 Fungal Endophytes from Cattleya 14.4.6 Fungal Endophytes from Oncidium 14.4.7 Fungal Endophytes from Paphiopedilum 14.4.8 Fungal Endophytes from Vanda 14.5 Applications of Fungal Endophytes 14.5.1 Medicinal Uses 14.5.2 Agricultural Uses 14.5.3 Industrial Uses 14.5.4 Bioremediation 14.6 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Fungal Mycotoxins: Occurrence and Detection 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Types of Mycotoxins 15.2.1 Aflatoxins (AFs) 15.2.2 Ochratoxins A (OTA) 15.2.3 Fumonisins (FMs) 15.2.4 Trichothecenes (TCTC) 15.2.5 Zearalenone (ZEA) 15.2.6 Patulin (PT) 15.2.7 Citrinin 15.3 Occurrence of Mycotoxin 15.4 Phytotoxicity 15.5 Mycotoxin Substrates 15.5.1 Mycotoxin in Food 15.5.2 Mycotoxin in Feed 15.5.3 Mycotoxin in Herbs and Spices 15.6 Exposure to Mycotoxin 15.7 Mycotoxin Bioaccessibility 15.8 Detection of Mycotoxin 15.8.1 Sampling for Mycotoxin Detection 15.8.2 Extraction of Mycotoxin from Food Sample 15.8.3 Cleanup of Mycotoxin Sample 15.8.4 QuEChERS Technique in Mycotoxin Detection 15.8.5 Quantification Techniques of Mycotoxin 15.8.5.1 Chromatographic Techniques 15.8.5.2 Immunoassay Technique 15.8.5.3 Rapid On-site Test Techniques 15.8.5.4 Infrared Spectroscopy 15.8.5.5 Capillary Electrophoresis 15.8.5.6 Molecular Imprinting Polymers 15.8.5.7 Fluorescence Polarization 15.8.5.8 Biosensors 15.8.5.9 Electronic Nose 15.9 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Preservative Efficacy of Essential Oils Against Postharvested Fungi and Insects of Food Commodities – A Prospect to Go Green 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Sources and Chemical Nature of EOs 16.3 EOs against Postharvested Fungi of Food Commodities 16.3.1 Mechanism of Antifungal Activity of EOs 16.4 EOs and Its Constituents against Harmful Insects of Food Commodities 16.5 Conclusions and Future Directives References Chapter 17: Fungal Biorefineries for Biofuel Production for Sustainable Future Energy Systems 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Biofuels 17.3 Biorefinery: The Microbial Machineries 17.4 Fungi in Biomass Utilisation 17.5 Fungal Enzymes: The Forces behind 17.5.1 Fungal Enzymes: Role in Biofuel Production 17.5.2 Fungal Enzymes Substrate 17.6 Conclusion 17.7 A Long Way to Go References Chapter 18: Environmental and Industrial Perspective of Beneficial Fungal Communities: Current Research and Future Challenges 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Diversity and Distribution 18.2.1 Environmentally Important Fungal Communities 18.2.2 Industrially Important Fungal Communities 18.3 Biotechnological Applications 18.3.1 Alleviation of Environmental Pollutants 18.3.2 Industrial Applications 18.3.2.1 Food Industries 18.3.2.2 Pharmaceuticals Industries 18.3.2.3 Biorefineries 18.4 Conclusion References Index