Rainwater-Smart Agriculture in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas : Fostering the Use of Rainwater for Food Security, Poverty Alleviation, Landscape Restoration and Climate Resilience

This book introduces state-of-the-art approaches, methods and research, focusing on smart management of rainwater. In addition, it provides an overview of projects from across the world, illustrating how rainwater-smart management has been implemented in drylands. Focusing on the scientific perspective it demonstrates how rural dryland agriculture can be improved. It also documents the wealth of rainwater-smart know-how available today, and replicates and transfers results to other countries and regions, to encourage cross-sector interactions among various stakeholders, such as practitioners from governmental and public organisations, policy- and decision-makers, and teaching staff from academic scientific institutions. The contributors showcase vital lessons learned from research, field projects and best-practice examples. They address the integrated use of rainwater harvesting management with landscape restoration practices and water-, and climate-smart agriculture for food security and poverty alleviation in arid and semi-arid areas. Original research, combined with the contributors’ synthetic approach, lays a foundation for new concepts and ideas. Through case studies and research reports, the book discusses all the relevant issues necessary for the comprehensive analysis and successful implementation of the technologies in rainwater management. Highlighting the working principles and technical recommendations with regard to cost-efficient rainwater-smart solutions, it is of interest to practitioners. It is also a valuable resource for academic specialists, professionals and students, since many development agencies are funding rainwater harvesting for irrigation purposes. Contents 5 1 Preface: Rainwater-Smart Agriculture in Arid and Semi-arid Areas 8 References 11 General Approaches and Methods 13 2 Using Rainwater for Off-Season Small-Scale Irrigation in Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Sub-Saharan Africa: Key Working Principles and Best Practices 14 Abstract 14 1 Introduction 15 2 Methodology 16 3 Key Working Principles of Off-Season Rainwater Harvesting Irrigation Management 17 3.1 Off-Season Rainwater Harvesting Irrigation Management 17 3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 19 4 Best Practices for Collecting and Storing Rainwater for Off-Season Small-Scale Irritation 19 4.1 Upgraded Road Runoff On-Farm Ponds 19 4.2 Low-Cost Roof Catchments 22 4.3 Climate-Resilient Seasonal Sandy Streams and Cost-Efficient Groundwater Dams 24 4.3.1 Tapping into the Natural Capacity of Alluvial Shallow Reservoirs 24 4.3.2 Implementing Cost-Efficient Subsurface Dams 26 4.3.3 Implementing Smart Sand Storage Dams 26 4.4 Self-replicable Hillside Small Earth Dams 27 4.5 Irrigation-Smart Rock Catchment Systems 28 5 Best Practices on Reusing Rainwater for Off-Season Small-Scale Irrigation 29 6 Discussion 29 6.1 Constraints 29 6.2 Impacts 31 6.3 Cost-Efficiency 33 7 Conclusions 38 Acknowledgements 38 References 38 3 Fostering Food Security and Climate Resilience Through Integrated Landscape Restoration Practices and Rainwater Harvesting/Management in Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Ethiopia 42 Abstract 42 1 Introduction 43 2 Characteristics of Tigray Region and Study Approach 44 2.1 Characteristics of Tigray Region 44 2.2 Study Approach 45 3 Results and Discussion 46 3.1 Major Trends in Sustainable Land and Water Management in Ethiopia 46 3.2 Key Impacts of Interventions in the Selected Sites 47 3.2.1 Impacts of LRWH Practices in the Abreha Weatsbeha Watershed 47 3.2.2 Impacts of LRWH Practices in the Sero Watershed 50 3.2.3 Impacts of LRWH Practices in the Dibdibo Watershed 52 3.2.4 Impacts of LRWH Practices in the Mariam Shewito Watershed 52 3.2.5 Impacts of LRWH Practices in the May Demu Watershed 53 3.3 Key Factors for Successful LRWH in Tigray 55 3.3.1 Technical Aspects 56 3.3.2 Community Engagement and Mobilizations 57 3.3.3 Institutional and Governance Issues 58 4 Conclusion and Recommendations 59 Acknowledgements 60 References 60 4 Towards Optimizing the Performance and Cost-Effectiveness of Farm Pond Technology for Small-Scale Irrigation in Semi-arid Farming Systems 63 Abstract 63 1 Introduction 64 2 Methodology 66 2.1 Study Area and Spatial Coverage 66 2.2 Research and Development Process 67 2.3 Agro-hydrological Evaluation of Farm Pond 68 3 Results and Discussion 70 3.1 Quantification of Water Losses 70 3.2 Adaptive Research and Technology Development 72 3.3 Scaling Up Upgraded Farm Pond in Kenya 74 4 Conclusions 78 References 79 5 The Promise of Flood-Based Farming Systems in Arid and Semi-arid Areas 81 Abstract 81 1 Introduction 82 2 Results 83 2.1 Flood-Based Farming Systems 83 2.1.1 Floodplain Agriculture 84 2.1.2 Spate Irrigation 85 2.1.3 Inundation Canals 86 2.1.4 Depression Agriculture 86 2.2 Potential for FBFS Strengthening Through Knowledge Transfer 86 2.2.1 Water Distribution 87 2.2.2 Field Water Management 89 2.2.3 Groundwater Use and Mapping 90 2.2.4 Agronomic Practices 93 2.2.5 Multi-functional Use 93 2.2.6 Internal Governance 95 3 Discussion 96 4 Conclusion 96 Acknowledgements 97 References 97 6 Adaptations in Water Harvesting Technologies for Enhancing Food Security and Livelihood: A Multi-country Study in Sub-Saharan Africa 99 Abstract 99 1 Introduction 100 2 Methodology 101 2.1 Study Area 101 2.1.1 Climatic Conditions 101 2.1.2 Water Harvesting Technologies 103 2.2 Methods 104 2.2.1 Case Study of Household Ponds in Ethiopia 104 2.2.2 Case Study of Ndiva Systems in Tanzania 105 2.2.3 Case Study of Combinations of Mechanized Zaï, Grass Strips and Bunds in Burkina Faso 106 3 Results 107 3.1 Household Ponds in Ethiopia 107 3.1.1 Current Status 107 3.1.2 Impact on Food Security and Livelihood 108 3.1.3 Pond Improvement: Use of Different Lining Materials 110 3.2 Ndiva Systems in Tanzania 111 3.2.1 Current Status 111 3.2.2 Impact on Food Security and Livelihood 112 3.2.3 Ndiva Improvement: The Lining of Conveyance Canals 113 3.3 Combinations of Mechanized Zaï, Grass Strips and Bunds in Burkina Faso 114 3.3.1 Current Status 114 3.3.2 Impact on Food Security and Livelihood 115 3.3.3 WHT Improvement and Impact on Soil Quality and Crop Yield 116 3.3.4 Costs and Benefits of Water Harvesting, Fertilization and Bunding (WTH+) 116 4 Discussion 119 5 Conclusions 121 Acknowledgements 121 References 121 7 Roads: Instruments for Rainwater Harvesting, Food Security and Climate Resilience in Arid and Semi-arid Areas 124 Abstract 124 1 Introduction 125 2 Methodology 125 2.1 Study Area 125 2.2 Methods 127 3 Results 127 3.1 Collecting Water from Roads and Road Catchments 127 3.2 Adapting to the Road: Using Runoff and Water Flows Generated by Roads 129 3.2.1 Spreading Water from Road Surface and Culverts into Farmland 130 3.2.2 Harvesting Water from Culverts, Side Drains and Depressions 130 3.2.3 Gully Plugging for Recharge 131 3.2.4 Spring Capture 132 3.3 Adjusting the Road: Improving Road Design for Multiple Functions 133 3.3.1 Fords Combined with Sand Dams 133 3.3.2 Carefully Planning Road Alignment and Culvert Location 133 3.3.3 Permeable Road Foundations 134 3.4 Case Study in Tigray Region, Ethiopia 134 3.5 Case Study in Yemen 139 4 Discussion 141 4.1 Enhancing the Resilience of Roadside Communities 141 4.2 Impacts on Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 143 5 Conclusions 144 Acknowledgements 145 References 145 Case Studies and Field Experiences 148 8 Fostering the Use of Rainwater for Off-Season Small-Scale Irrigation in Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Ethiopia 149 Abstract 149 1 Introduction 150 2 Methodology 151 3 Results and Discussion 151 3.1 Rainwater Harvesting Technologies in Ethiopia 151 3.2 RWH and SSI Best Practices 153 3.3 Barriers to Adoption of RWH and SSI by the Smallholder Farmers 155 4 Conclusions and Recommendations 157 Acknowledgements 159 References 159 9 Fostering the Use of Rainwater for Off-Season Small-Scale Irrigation in Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Kenya 161 Abstract 161 1 Introduction 162 1.1 Background 162 1.2 Objectives of the Study 164 1.3 The Principle of Rainwater Harvesting 164 2 Methodology 164 2.1 Study Area 164 2.2 Methods 165 3 Results 166 3.1 Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Kenya 166 3.1.1 Micro-catchment RWH Systems 166 3.1.2 Macro-catchment RWH Systems 167 3.1.3 In Situ RWH Systems 167 3.2 Rainwater Harvesting Irrigation Technologies in Kenya 168 3.2.1 On-farm Pond Systems 168 3.2.2 Earth Dams and Water Pans 169 3.2.3 Groundwater Dams (Sand Dams and Subsurface Dams) 170 3.2.4 Roof Water Catchment Systems 171 3.2.5 Rock Outcrop Catchment Systems 171 3.2.6 Flood Diversion and Spreading (Spate Irrigation) Systems 172 3.2.7 Small External Catchment Systems 172 4 Discussion 173 5 Conclusions and Recommendations 174 Acknowledgements 175 References 175 10 Rainwater Harvesting Options to Support Off-Season Small-Scale Irrigation in Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Zimbabwe 177 Abstract 177 1 Introduction 178 2 Methodology 180 2.1 Study Area 180 2.2 Study Approach 180 3 Current RWHI Practices and Technologies in Zimbabwe 181 3.1 In-Field RWHI Systems 181 3.1.1 Infiltration Pits 181 3.1.2 Fanya Juu 182 3.1.3 Tied Contours 182 3.1.4 Dead-Level Contours 182 3.1.5 Ridging/Tied Ridging 184 3.1.6 Planting Basins 185 3.2 Ex Situ RWHI Systems 186 3.2.1 Roof Catchments 186 3.2.2 Rock Catchments 186 3.2.3 Small-Scale Surface Dams 187 3.2.4 Ground Catchment Systems 188 Sand Dams 189 4 RWHI Technologies and Their Link to Small-Scale Irrigation Development 190 4.1 Ex Situ RWHI Systems and Small-Scale Irrigation 191 4.1.1 Rock and Roof Water Harvesting Structures and Small-Scale Irrigation 191 4.1.2 Small-Scale Surface Dams and Small-Scale Irrigation 192 4.1.3 Groundwater Systems and Small-Scale Irrigation 193 4.2 Challenges of RWHI Upscaling in Zimbabwe 194 5 Conclusions and Recommendations 195 Acknowledgements 196 References 196 11 Improving the Efficiency of Runoff Pond System for Supplementary Irrigation in Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Kenya 200 Abstract 200 1 Introduction 200 2 The Advent of Trapezoidal Runoff Ponds in Kenya 202 3 Assessment and Improvement of Efficiency for the Runoff Pond Components 202 3.1 Conveyance Mechanisms 202 3.1.1 Road Channels and Waterways 202 3.1.2 The Mini-Wetlands 204 3.1.3 The Automated Silt Trap 204 3.2 Storage Mechanisms 205 3.3 Abstraction and Application Mechanisms 209 3.3.1 The Bucket and Rope 209 3.3.2 The Rope-and-Washer Pump 210 3.3.3 The Brazilian Pump 211 3.3.4 The MoneyMaker Pumps 211 4 Conclusion 212 References 213 12 Low-Tech Irrigation Strategies for Smallholder Vegetable Farmers in Kenya 215 Abstract 215 1 Introduction 216 2 Material and Methods 220 2.1 Study Area 220 2.2 Data Collection in Kenya 222 2.3 Green River Principle 223 3 Rainwater Management Methods Used in Kajiado 225 4 Resource Efficiency of GRP 225 5 Cost Efficiency of GRP 228 6 Local Adoption of Rainwater Smart Management and Irrigation 230 7 Outlook 230 8 Conclusions 232 References 232 13 Rainwater Harvesting Irrigation—A Strategic Measure for Integrated Rural Development in the Dry Mountainous Areas of Gansu Province, China 234 Abstract 234 1 Introduction 235 2 Description of the RWH Irrigation Systems 239 2.1 The Rainwater Catchment 239 2.2 Rainwater Storage Tank 240 2.3 High-Efficiency Irrigation Equipment 242 3 Enhancing Rainwater Irrigation Efficiency 246 3.1 Development of the Low-Rate Irrigation (LORI) Approach 246 3.2 Modified Agricultural Practice 248 3.3 Role of Greenhouses in Enhancing the Benefits of RWH Irrigation Project 249 4 Achievements and Challenges 250 4.1 Achievements 250 4.2 Challenges Facing the RWH Irrigation Project 253 5 Conclusions 254 References 255 14 Benefits and Challenges of Dugout Rainwater Harvesting Ponds in Tigray Region, Ethiopia 257 Abstract 257 1 Introduction 257 2 Methodology 259 2.1 Study Area 259 2.2 Methods 260 3 Results and Discussions 261 3.1 History of Pond Construction in the Region 261 3.2 Socio-Economic, Environmental and Livelihood Impacts 265 3.3 Technical Challenges 266 4 Discussion 272 5 Conclusions 274 Acknowledgements 274 References 274 15 Innovative Rainwater Harvesting Technologies for Pastoralists in Arid and Semi-arid Areas: A Case Study in Oromiya Region, Ethiopia 279 Abstract 279 1 Introduction 279 1.1 Background 279 1.2 History, Role in Development and Challenges of Rainwater Harvesting in Ethiopia 280 1.3 Water and Poverty Linkages 282 1.4 Causes of Vulnerability to Climate Change and Water Stress in Ethiopia 282 1.5 The Role of RWH as a Coping Mechanism to Extreme Events 283 1.6 Challenges with Existing Water Catchment Technologies 284 1.7 Objectives 284 2 Methodology 284 2.1 Study Area 284 2.2 Methods 285 2.3 Site Selection and Community Consultation for the Pilot Project 286 2.4 Community Consultation 287 2.5 Construction 287 3 Results 289 3.1 Pilot Project 289 3.2 Adaptation and Incubation of a Tested Technology from Wet to Arid Regions—Jimma to Borena 290 3.2.1 Overview of Pastoralist Communities in Borena Zone, Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia 290 3.2.2 Design of the New Innovation Suggested for Incubation in the Pastoralist Communities of Borena Zone 292 3.2.3 What Is Innovative About This Project? 295 3.2.4 How the Innovation Will Contribute to Resilience-Building in the Region 295 3.3 Environmental Issues 296 4 Conclusions and Recommendations 297 4.1 Conclusions 297 4.2 Recommendations 297 Acknowledgements 298 References 298 16 The ‘Majaluba’ Rice Production System: A Rainwater Harvesting ‘Bright Spot’ in Tanzania 300 Abstract 300 1 Introduction 300 2 Methodology 302 2.1 Study Area 302 2.2 Prior Knowledge of the Majaluba Water Harvesting System and Its Evolution 304 2.3 Reappraisal Method 306 3 Results 307 3.1 Secondary Data on the Spread and Current Extent of the ‘Majaluba’ RWH System 307 3.2 New Insights into the Spread and Current Extent of the ‘Majaluba’ RWH System 308 4 Discussion: Does the ‘Majaluba’ System of Rice Production in Tanzania Represent a RWH ‘Bright Spot’? 314 5 Conclusions 315 Acknowledgements 316 References 316 17 Fostering the Adoption of In Situ Rainwater Harvesting for Food Security in Rwenzori Region, Uganda 319 Abstract 319 1 Introduction 319 2 Study Area and Methods 321 2.1 Study Area 321 2.2 Methods 322 3 Results and Discussion 326 3.1 Interventions on Farmers’ Gardens 326 3.2 Impacts 327 3.2.1 Crop Yields 327 3.2.2 Groundwater Level 328 3.3 Adoption Constraints 329 3.3.1 Land Availability Versus Increased Productivity 330 3.3.2 Labour Requirements 330 3.3.3 Available Resources 331 3.4 Testimonies of Some of the Farmers 332 3.4.1 Farmer One 332 3.4.2 Farmer Two 332 3.4.3 Farmer Three 333 3.4.4 Farmer Four 333 3.4.5 Farmer Five 334 3.4.6 Farmer Six 334 4 Conclusions and Recommendations 335 References 336 18 Management of Rainwater Resources for Rehabilitation of Degraded Lands in Arid and Semi-arid Region of Southern Pakistan 338 Abstract 338 1 Introduction 338 1.1 Study Area 339 1.2 The Dryland Ecosystems 340 1.3 Statement of the Problem 342 2 Methodology 342 2.1 Design Parameters 343 2.2 Instruments 343 2.3 Operational Details 345 3 Results 345 3.1 Physical Evidences 345 3.2 Cost Analysis 348 4 Discussion 350 5 Conclusions 351 Acknowledgements 351 References 352 19 Rainwater Management to Restore Ecosystems and Foster Food Production: A Case Study in the Semiarid Region of Minas Gerais in Brazil 353 Abstract 353 1 Introduction 353 1.1 Environmental Integrity, Food Security, and Social Stability 354 1.2 Environmental Resilience Through Rainwater Harvesting 355 2 Methodology 357 2.1 Study Area 357 2.2 Methods 357 2.2.1 Micro-rainwater Harvesting Systems 357 2.2.2 Superficial and Subsurface Soil Structure 360 2.2.3 Soil Moisture 361 3 Results 362 3.1 Superficial and Subsurface Soil Structure 362 3.2 Soil Moisture 364 4 Discussion 366 5 Conclusions 367 Acknowledgements 368 References 368 20 Lessons Learned in the Replication and Scaling-up of Rainwater Harvesting Technologies in Arid and Semi-arid Areas: A Case Study of Kilifi County, Kenya 372 Abstract 372 1 Introduction 373 2 Methodology 374 2.1 Study Area 374 2.2 Methods 376 3 Experiences and Lessons Learnt in Implementing Resilience Building Interventions 377 3.1 Limitations in the Design of the CFA Projects 377 3.2 Replication and Transferability Potential of RWH Technologies 377 3.3 Potential of RWH Technologies in Enhancing Household Food Security Shocks 379 3.4 Technical Support and Capacity Development 380 3.5 Weak Community Institutions and Project Management Capacities 381 3.6 Insecurity and Land Conflicts 382 4 Discussion 382 5 Conclusions and Recommendations 383 Acknowledgements 384 References 384 Front Matter ....Pages i-vii Preface: Rainwater-Smart Agriculture in Arid and Semi-arid Areas (Walter Leal Filho, Josep de Trincheria Gomez)....Pages 1-5 Front Matter ....Pages 7-7 Using Rainwater for Off-Season Small-Scale Irrigation in Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Sub-Saharan Africa: Key Working Principles and Best Practices (Josep de Trincheria Gomez, Desalegn Dawit, Sebastiao Famba, Walter Leal Filho, Maimbo Malesu, Paula Viola Mussera et al.)....Pages 9-36 Fostering Food Security and Climate Resilience Through Integrated Landscape Restoration Practices and Rainwater Harvesting/Management in Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Ethiopia (Kifle Woldearegay, Lulseged Tamene, Kindu Mekonnen, Fred Kizito, Deborah Bossio)....Pages 37-57 Towards Optimizing the Performance and Cost-Effectiveness of Farm Pond Technology for Small-Scale Irrigation in Semi-arid Farming Systems (Stephen N. Ngigi)....Pages 59-76 The Promise of Flood-Based Farming Systems in Arid and Semi-arid Areas (Matthijs Kool, Frank van Steenbergen, Abraham Mehari Haile, Yasir Mohamed Abbas, Eyasu Hagos)....Pages 77-94 Adaptations in Water Harvesting Technologies for Enhancing Food Security and Livelihood: A Multi-country Study in Sub-Saharan Africa (D. Snelder, F. Kahimba, O. Korodjouma, A. Abebe, E. Oughton, L. Bunclark et al.)....Pages 95-119 Roads: Instruments for Rainwater Harvesting, Food Security and Climate Resilience in Arid and Semi-arid Areas (Frank van Steenbergen, Kifle Woldearegay, Marta Agujetas Perez, Kebede Manjur, Mohammed Abdullah Al-Abyadh)....Pages 121-144 Front Matter ....Pages 145-145 Fostering the Use of Rainwater for Off-Season Small-Scale Irrigation in Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Ethiopia (Belay Simane, Taffa Tulu, Amare Lantideru, Desalegn Dawit)....Pages 147-158 Fostering the Use of Rainwater for Off-Season Small-Scale Irrigation in Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Kenya (Nicholas Oguge, Francis Oremo)....Pages 159-174 Rainwater Harvesting Options to Support Off-Season Small-Scale Irrigation in Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Zimbabwe (Menas Wuta, George Nyamadzawo, Blessing Nyamasoka, Rumbidzai Nyawasha, Grace Matayaya, Raymond Nazare et al.)....Pages 175-197 Improving the Efficiency of Runoff Pond System for Supplementary Irrigation in Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Kenya (Alex Raymonds Oduor, Maimbo Malesu Mabanga)....Pages 199-213 Low-Tech Irrigation Strategies for Smallholder Vegetable Farmers in Kenya (Silke Stöber, Caroline Moraza, Lucas Zahl, Esther Kagai)....Pages 215-233 Rainwater Harvesting Irrigation—A Strategic Measure for Integrated Rural Development in the Dry Mountainous Areas of Gansu Province, China (Qiang Zhu, John Gould)....Pages 235-257 Benefits and Challenges of Dugout Rainwater Harvesting Ponds in Tigray Region, Ethiopia (Gebremedhin Berhane)....Pages 259-280 Innovative Rainwater Harvesting Technologies for Pastoralists in Arid and Semi-arid Areas: A Case Study in Oromiya Region, Ethiopia (Alemayehu Haddis)....Pages 281-301 The ‘Majaluba’ Rice Production System: A Rainwater Harvesting ‘Bright Spot’ in Tanzania (John Gowing, Lisa Bunclark, Henry Mahoo, Frederick Kahimba)....Pages 303-321 Fostering the Adoption of In Situ Rainwater Harvesting for Food Security in Rwenzori Region, Uganda (James W. Kisekka, Nasser Kinaalwa, Evelyne Busingye, Maarten Onneweer)....Pages 323-341 Management of Rainwater Resources for Rehabilitation of Degraded Lands in Arid and Semi-arid Region of Southern Pakistan (Sahibzada Irfanullah Khan)....Pages 343-357 Rainwater Management to Restore Ecosystems and Foster Food Production: A Case Study in the Semiarid Region of Minas Gerais in Brazil (Norma Angélica Hernández-Bernal)....Pages 359-377 Lessons Learned in the Replication and Scaling-up of Rainwater Harvesting Technologies in Arid and Semi-arid Areas: A Case Study of Kilifi County, Kenya (Charles Kipkorir Songok, Paul Kimeu, James Kamunge, Raphael Ngumbi, Lotome Chammah, Christine Adiema et al.)....Pages 379-392