Purpose and power : a history of US grand strategy from the revolutionary era to the present

Across the full span of the nation's history, Donald Stoker challenges our understanding of the purposes and uses of American power. From the struggle for independence to the era of renewed competition with China and Russia, he reveals the grand strategies underpinning the nation's pursuit of sovereignty, security, expansion, and democracy abroad. He shows how successive administrations have projected diplomatic, military, and economic power, and mobilized ideas and information to preserve American freedoms at home and secure US aims abroad. He exposes the myth of American isolationism, the good and ill of America's quest for democracy overseas, and how too often its administrations have lacked clear political aims or a concrete vision for where they want to go. Understanding this history is vital if America is to relearn how to use its power to meet the challenges ahead and to think more clearly about political aims and grand strategy. Cover Half-title page Title page Copyright page Dedication Contents List of Figures List of Maps List of Abbreviations Thinking about Grand Strategy in Peace and War Introduction “What Should American Grand Strategy Be?” A Framework for Strategic Analysis Interests America’s Historic Political Aims: Security, Sovereignty, Expansion (and Democracy) Grand Strategy A Final Word before We Begin... Part I From Backwater to Great Power 1 The Fight for Sovereignty, 1775–1801 The Insurrectionists The Origins of the War for American Independence, 1776–83 An Insurrection Like No Other The Political Aims Assessment and Preparation Colonial Grand Strategy: The First Phase Britain’s War: Reassessment and Strategy A New Aim: Sovereignty Diplomatic and Economic Strategy Colonial Military Strategy: The Second Phase A Strategic Shift: Protracting the War with a Fabian Strategy The 1777–78 Campaign Global War, 1778–83 Diplomatic and Economic Strategy The War in the North Britain’s Southern Campaign Military Victory: Yorktown Political Victory: The Peace Some Conclusions Towards Constitutional Government, 1783–89 The George Washington Administration, 1789–97 The Assessment Economic Strategy Diplomatic Strategy Military Strategy Frontier Expansion, 1783–1801 The War against the Western Confederacy Washington’s Farewell Address The John Adams Administration, 1797–1801 The Political Aim Diplomatic and Military Strategy Some Conclusions 2 Expansion, Sovereignty, and War, 1801–1817 Assessment and Political Aims Economic Strategy Military Affairs and Jefferson’s Barbary War, 1801–07 Tecumseh’s War, 1811–13 Diplomatic Strategy The Origins of the War of 1812 Fear, Honor, Interest: The Political Aim The Assessment American Grand Strategy The Enemy America Goes to War The 1812 Campaign Naval Strategy in 1812 The Detroit Front The Niagara Front Dearborn’s “Offensive” The 1813 Campaign The Naval War of 1813 The Campaign of 1813 The Niagara and Lake Ontario Front The Detroit and Lake Erie Front The Montreal Campaign The 1814 Campaign The Naval War of 1814 The 1814 Campaign The British Strike Andrew Jackson’s War in the South Ending the War Conclusion The Second Barbary War, 1815 After the War of 1812 3 Seeking a Continent: Expansion, Indian Removal, and the Mexican War, 1817–1849 Introduction The James Monroe and John Quincy Adams Administrations, 1817–29 The Political Aims The Assessment: Threats, Risks, Dangers, Challenges Grand Strategy Diplomatic Strategy Economic Strategy Military Strategy The First Seminole War, 1817–19 Expansion: Indian Removal Assessing the Monroe and Adams Administrations The Age of Andrew Jackson, 1829–41 The Assessment and the Political Aims Diplomatic Strategy Indian Removal Military Strategy The Black Hawk War, 1832 The Second Creek War, 1836–37 The Second Seminole War, 1835–42 Economic Strategy The Tariff and the Nullification Crisis The Battle with the Bank of the United States The Martin Van Buren Administration, 1837–41 Economic Strategy Diplomatic Strategy The William Henry Harrison and John Tyler Administrations, 1841–45 Assessment and the Political Aims Economic Strategy Diplomatic Strategy The James K. Polk Administration and the Mexican War, 1845–49 The Political Aims The Mexican War, 1846–48 Diplomatic and Informational Strategies Military Strategy The Assessment Military Strategy Diplomatic Strategy Zachary Taylor’s Campaign The California Campaign Winfield Scott’s War Ending the War, Securing the Peace The Lessons of the War 4 Schism, Civil War, and Reconstruction, 1849–1877 Introduction Schism: The Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, Franklin Pierce, and James Buchanan Administrations, 1849–61 The Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore Administrations, 1849–53 The Franklin Pierce Administration, 1853–57 The James Buchanan Administration, 1857–61 The Civil War, 1861–65 The Political Aims Starting the War: An Issue of Timing Strategy and the Civil War The Assessment Diplomatic Strategy Economic Strategy Myth and Theory Groping to Destruction The Border States McClellan’s Grand Plan Naval Strategy Union Strategy: McClellan in Command The Confederacy Reacts Halleck’s Half-Hearted War The South’s Offensive Strategy Escalation and Destruction Joseph Johnston’s Western War Lee’s Offensive Striking the Periphery – Defending the Center Lincoln, Strategy, and Securing the Peace Grant’s Strategy The 1864 Presidential Election Ending the War Assessing Grand Strategy during the Civil War Securing the Peace: The Reconstruction Era, 1865–77 The Andrew Johnson and Ulysses S. Grant Administrations, 1865–77 Wartime Reconstruction Postwar Reconstruction Presidential Reconstruction Radical Reconstruction Ending Reconstruction Assessing Reconstruction as Grand Strategy 5 Conquering a Continent: The Indian wars, 1865–1897 Introduction The Andrew Johnson and Ulysses S. Grant Administrations, 1865–77 The Political Aims The Grand Strategy The Grant Administration: Political Aims and Grand Strategy Economic Strategy The Conquest of the West The Assessment Political Aims and Grand Strategy: The Lincoln, Johnson, and Grant Administrations, 1861–77 Military Strategy The Indian Wars – The Lincoln and Johnson Administration The Civil War Indian Wars The Snake War, 1864–68 The Red Cloud War, 1866–68 The Cheyenne-Arapaho-Kiowa-Sioux War, 1867 The Cheyenne-Arapaho-Kiowa War, 1868 The Grant Administration: Political Aims and Grand Strategy The Comanche War and the Red River War, 1867–75 The Modoc War, 1872–73 The Great Sioux War, 1876–77 The Nez Perce War, June–October 1877, and the Ute War, 1879 The Apache Wars, 1871–86 The “Indian Question” From Rutherford B. Hayes to Grover Cleveland, 1877–97 Aims and Strategy Military Developments and Strategic Concerns The Army The Navy Conclusion 6 American Empire, 1897–1913 Introduction The William J. McKinley Administration, 1897–1901 The Spanish–American War: April to December 1898 Prewar Strategy The Political Aims Assessment, Preparation, and Prewar Planning Grand Strategy Military Strategy Ending the War with Spain The Aftermath The War for the Philippines The Assessment The War Begins Strategy The Conventional War Counterinsurgency and Nation Building Ending the War and Securing the Peace China and the Boxer Rebellion The Strategic Result The Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft Administrations Political Aims and Grand Strategy The Canal The Venezuela Crisis, 1902–03 The Dominican Republic Crisis, 1902–04 The Cuban Intervention, 1906–09 The Pacific Informational Strategy Economic Strategy The William Howard Taft Administration, 1909–13 A Grand Strategy of Economics Latin America China and Japan Conclusion Part II From Great Power to Superpower 7 Stepping upon the Global Stage, 1913–1921 Introduction Wilson’s Political Aims: The Great Shift Assessment Economic Strategy Diplomatic Strategy Latin America The Haiti War, 1915–21 Wilson’s Mexican Wars, 1914–17 The Dominican Republic War, 1916–21 Cuba, 1917–22 Asia Woodrow Wilson and the First World War, 1914–18 Prewar Political Aims and Diplomatic Strategy Preparation and Assessment Wilson’s Political Aims Coalition Warfare and US Grand Strategy The War in Europe: Military Strategy Wilson’s Evolving Political Aims and Grand Strategy Military Strategy Continued The Russia Interlude The War in Europe: The Final Phase Making the World Safe for Tyranny: Losing the Peace The Political Aim Using Militarily Power Maintaining the Peace Conclusion 8 The Interwar Interlude, 1921–1939 Introduction Assessment The Return of Republican Presidential Dominance, 1921–33 The Harding and Coolidge Administrations: Political Aims and a Grand Strategy of Normalcy (Sort Of) Economic Strategy Diplomatic Strategy Latin America and the Caribbean Mexico The Dominican Republic Haiti Honduras. The Soviet Union The Washington Treaties Asia War Debt and the Dawes Plan The Locarno Agreements The Kellogg–Briand Pact The Young Plan The Last Banana War: Nicaragua, 1927–33 Postwar Military Organization and Strategic Planning The Herbert Hoover Administration, 1929–33 Diplomatic Strategy Latin America and the Caribbean Economic Strategy and the Great Depression Conclusion The Franklin Delano Roosevelt Administration, 1933–39 The Assessment Roosevelt’s Aims Roosevelt’s Grand Strategy: The New Deal Roosevelt’s Economic Strategy: America First The Evolving Economic Strategy The Results of the New Deal Diplomatic Strategy Conclusion 9 Moving Astride the World: The Second World War, 1939–1945 America’s Road to War Diplomatic and Economic Strategy: Japan Military Planning and Strategy Economic Strategy Diplomatic Strategy and the Evolving Political Aims America’s War Global War: The Political Aims Allied Grand Strategy: The Path to Normandy Naval Strategy: Winning Control of the Sea Air Strategy: Winning Control of the Sky Operation OVERLORD – The Cross-Channel Invasion The German Defense The Western European Campaign The Pacific War The Origins of the Pacific War American Strategy in the Pacific War Allied Strategy Evolves Japan Reassesses The 1942 Japanese Offensives The American Counteroffensive The Axis and Allies Reassess America’s Changing War The Dual-Pronged Offensive Japan Reassesses – Again The Central Pacific Drive Airpower Strategy The Next Steps The Central Pacific Drive Continues Ending the War Securing the Peace: Building the Postwar Order Conclusion 10 Hot Peace and the Korean War, 1945–1953 Introduction A Shattered World The Roots of the Hot Peace A Persistent Myth The Lack of a Political Aim Assessment, Strategy, Reassessment A Political Aim: The Truman Doctrine Crafting a Grand Strategy Economic Strategy: Aid and Trade Diplomatic and Military Strategy Meeting the Communist Challenge Military Strategy and Planning Reassessment: NSC 68 The Korean War, 1950–53 The Communist Decision for War The Korean War: The First Phase The US Decision to Intervene: The Political Aim and the Problem of Interests Are We at War? The Instruments of War: The Poor State of US Forces The Second Phase Changing the Political Aim The Other Side of the Wall: China Enters the War Washington Searches for a Response The Decisive Moment? The Armistice Negotiations The War Continues Eisenhower Takes Command Some Effects and Conclusions Assessing the Truman Administration, 1945–53 11 The Hot Peace: The Eisenhower, Kennedy, And Johnson Years, 1953–1969 The Dwight Eisenhower Administration, 1953–61 Reassessment: The Solarium Project The Political Aims and the New Look Military Strategy Diplomatic Strategy Information Strategy Economic Strategy Vietnam and Indochina The New Security Strategy Conclusion The John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson Administrations, 1961–69 The Assessment The Ideas The Political Aim and the Grand Strategy Military Strategy Diplomatic Strategy Informational Strategy Economic Strategy Meeting the Communist Challenge The Lyndon Johnson Administration The Soviet Union and the Communist Challenge Diplomatic Strategy Military Strategy Economic Strategy Assessing the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations 12 The Vietnam War, 1961–1969 Introduction North Vietnamese Political Aims and Grand Strategy The Kennedy Administration The Political Aim and the Grand Strategy The Diplomatic Strategy The Decisive Act? The Lyndon Johnson Administration and the Vietnam War The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution The Johnson Administration’s Vietnam War The Political Aim Preparation and the Decision to Intervene The Assessment The Air Strategy: Signaling, Bargaining, and Failure Military Strategy: The Ground War Westmoreland’s Strategy The Pacification Strategy: Counterinsurgency and Nation Building Naval Strategy Informational Strategy The Results The Johnson Administration Reassesses Military Reassessment Conclusion 13 Détente and Defeat: Nixon, Ford, and Vietnam, 1969–1977 Introduction The Assessment The Political Aim The Grand Strategy Political Aims and Strategy: The Soviet Union and China Diplomatic Strategy: Beyond Containment Informational Strategy Economic Strategy Military Strategy The Nixon Administration and the Vietnam War Reassessment The Political Aim Nixon and Grand Strategy in Vietnam Diplomatic Strategy Military Strategy: Part I Vietnamization Military Strategy: Part II Nation Building: Army and Government The Pacification Strategy Invading Cambodia Laos Reassessment and Recalibration The 1972 Easter Offensive Ending America’s War Failing to Secure the Peace: The Fall of South Vietnam, 1973–75 Conclusions 14 For Want of a Vision: The Carter Years, 1977–1981 Introduction Political Aims and Grand Strategy The Assessment Grand Strategy – Part I Informational Strategy Military Strategy The Soviet Union China and Asia The Middle East The Third World Economic Strategy A Fateful Year: 1979 The Carter Administration – Part 2: Reassessment, Political Aims, and Grand Strategy Some Conclusions 15 Winning the Hot Peace: Reagan’s Great-Power Competition, 1981–1990 The Ronald Reagan Administration, 1981–89 The Assessment The Political Aims Grand Strategy and the Global Cold War Economic Strategy Military Strategy Diplomatic Strategy Information Strategy The Global Struggle Afghanistan The Grenada War, 1983 Latin America The Middle East The Persian Gulf Lebanon, 1982–83 Libya China and Asia Africa 1985: Change and Reassessment The Final Soviet Offensive The George H. W. Bush Administration, 1989–91: Part I The Assessment The Political Aims and the Grand Strategy The Collapse of the Communist Bloc, 1989 Diplomatic Strategy The Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War Economic Strategy Military Strategy The Panama War, 1989–90 Asia and China The Middle East The Collapse of the Soviet Union Conclusion Part III The Post–Cold War World 16 The Gulf War, or First Iraq War, 1990–1991 Introduction The First Iraq War, 1990–91 The Assessment Political Aims and Grand Strategy: Peacetime The Political Aim: Wartime Constructing Strategy The Airpower Strategy The Ground Strategy The Military Strategy Saddam’s Grand Strategy The War Begins The Air Campaign Saddam Reassesses The Ground Campaign Ending the War A Changing Political Aim? Continued Military Action? Losing the Peace? Conclusion 17 The New World Disorder: Bush and Clinton, 1991–2001 The George H. W. Bush Administration: Part II New Aims and a New Grand Strategy Reassessment and the Evolution of Grand Strategy The Bush Administration’s Final Iteration of Grand Strategy The New World Order Proves Not So Orderly: Yugoslavia and Somalia The Bill Clinton Administration and Grand Strategy, 1993–2001 The Assessment “It’s Not Always the Economy, Stupid!”: A “Grand Strategy” of Economics The Twin Blows: Somalia and Haiti Haiti Reassessment The Political Aims and the Grand Strategy Diplomatic Strategy Rwanda China North Korea Russia, Europe, and Nato Expansion Haiti – Again The Bosnian War The Effects Thus Far The New National Security Strategies Military Strategy Terrorism and Al Qaeda The Middle East The Kosovo War, 1999 Conclusion 18 Wilsonian Revolutionaries: Bush and War, 2001–2009 Introduction The “Global War on Terror” Assessment, Political Aims, and Grand Strategy The Afghan War, 2001–08 The Political Aims Diplomatic Strategy Military Planning and Strategy Failing to Secure the Peace A Strategy of Nation Building The War’s Next Phase, 2002–09 Changing Aims, Evolving Grand Strategy The Second Iraq War, 2003–09 The Political Aims Assessment Diplomatic Strategy Military Strategy: Planning Operation Iraqi Freedom Failing to End the War, Failing to Secure the Peace, and a Different Political Aim Military Strategy The Insurgency Begins Summer 2004: The Changing of the Guard The Administration’s Strategy The Iraq War to the Jihadists The Bush Administration Reassesses Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq China Economic Strategy Conclusion Part IV Retreat and Defeat 19 Retrenchment, Engagement, and War: The Obama Years, 2009–2017 Introduction Assessment The Political Aims A Grand Strategy of Tactics “Don’t Do Stupid Shit”: An Obama Doctrine? Economic Strategy Information Strategy Diplomatic Strategy China and the Pivot to Asia Russia, Europe, and NATO The Arab Spring and the Middle East The Libyan War, 2011 The Syrian Civil War Iran Obama’s Afghanistan and Iraq Wars Obama’s Afghan War, 2009–17 The Assessment The Political Aim, Grand Strategy, and Reassessment The Political Aim and the Grand Strategy – Redux Reassessment Obama’s “Comprehensive Counterterrorism Strategy” Obama’s Iraq War, 2009–11 Political Aims and Grand Strategy The Third Iraq War or the Islamic State War, 2014–17 Military Strategy – Other Factors Conclusion 20 Retrenchment, Engagement, and Weakness: Trump and Biden, 2017–2022 Introduction The Assessment The Political Aims “We’re America, Bitch” – A Trump Doctrine? Obstacles The National Security Strategy Economic Strategy Diplomatic Strategy North Korea The Middle East Syria Iran China and the Indo-Pacific Region Strategy Human Rights Military Strategy and Developments Europe and Nato Russia The Third Iraq War, or the Islamic State War Continued 2017–21 The Assessment and the Political Aim The Grand Strategy The Afgan War Continued, 2017–21 The Assessment The Political Aims and the Grand Strategy Conclusion The Joseph Biden Administration, 2021-? Assessment Political Aims Grand Strategy Integrated Deterrence Economic Strategy Diplomacy and War The Third Iraq War, or Islamic State War Continued, 2021–22 Losing the Afghan War, 2021 Russia’s Ukraine War Conclusion Conclusion What Should American Grand Strategy Be? This is the Wrong Question The Way We Think and How We Got Here Some Core Mistakes Some Core Successes The Purpose of Power? Diplomatic Strategy Economic Strategy Military Strategy Information Strategy A Final Word... Acknowledgements Notes Index