روانشناسی در زمینهٔ اجتماعی (ویرایش سوم)

To be the most comprehensive neuroscience introductory psychologybook, every chapter contains much new research and cutting-edgecoverage, all accessibly presented with engaging real-world examplesthat make the material relevant and interesting to students. Studentslearn the connections between the various fields of psychology in theirintroductory course by using Kosslyn /Rosenberg 3e. They alsounderstand the science behind psychology while being motivated tolearn with student-friendly pedagogy and real world examples.Students will understand the scientific method, how to think criticallyabout research, and how to draw inferences from the results. Front Cover Front Matter Full title Imprint Preface Learning aids for students Brief contents Contents Acknowledgements Acknowledgements (US editions) About the authors Chapter 1 Psychology: yesterday and today The science of psychology What is psychology? Levels of analysis: the complete psychology Three levels of analysis in psychology All together now Psychology then and now: the evolution of a science Early days: beginning to map mental processes and behaviour Structuralism Functionalism Gestalt psychology Psychodynamic theory: more than meets the eye Behaviourism: the power of the environment Humanistic psychology The cognitive revolution Cognitive neuroscience Evolutionary psychology Psychology today Psychology in New Zealand – then and now Psychological careers: what can you do with a psychology degree? Academic psychology: teaching and research Careers related to psychology Ethics Ethics in research Research with people: human guinea pigs? Research with animals Ethics in clinical practice New frontiers: neuroethics Review and remember! Chapter 2 The research process: how we find things out The scientific method: designed to be valid Step 1: specifying a problem Step 2: observing events Step 3: forming a hypothesis Step 4: testing the hypothesis Step 5: formulating a theory Step 6: testing the theory The psychologist’s toolbox: techniques of scientific research Descriptive research: let’s just stick to the facts Naturalistic observation Case studies Surveys Correlational research: do birds of a feather flock together? Experimental research: manipulating and measuring Independent and dependent variables Experimental and control groups and conditions Quasi-experimental design Be a critical consumer of psychology Reliability: count on it! Validity: what does it really mean? Bias: playing with loaded dice Experimenter-expectancy effects: making it happen Psychology and pseudopsychology: what’s flaky and what isn’t? Statistics: measuring reality Descriptive statistics: telling it like it is Data Frequency distributions Measures of central tendency Measures of variability Relative standing Inferential statistics: sorting the wheat from the chaff Correlation: the relationship between two variables Samples and populations Meta-analysis How to think about research studies Reading research reports: the QALMRI method Q stands for the question A stands for alternatives L stands for the logic of the study M stands for the method R stands for the results I stands for inferences Summary Review and remember! Chapter 3 The biology of mind and behaviour: the brain in action Brain circuits: making connections The neuron: a powerful computer Structure of a neuron: the ins and outs Neural impulses: the brain in action Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators: bridging the gap Chemical messages: signals and modulators Receptors: on the receiving end Unbalanced brain: coping with bad chemicals Glial cells: more than the neurons’ helpmates Neurons and glia: a mutually giving relationship Glial networks: another way to think and feel? The nervous system: an orchestra with many members The peripheral nervous system: a moving story The autonomic nervous system The sensory-somatic nervous system The central nervous system: reflex and reflection The visible brain: lobes and landmarks Structure and function: no dotted lines Spotlight on the brain: how it divides and conquers The cerebral cortex: the seat of the mind Occipital lobes: looking good Temporal lobes: up to their ears in work Parietal lobes: inner space Frontal lobes: leaders of the pack The dual brain: thinking with both barrels Split-brain research: a deep disconnect Hemispheric specialisation: not just for the deeply disconnected Beneath the cortex: the inner brain Thalamus: crossroads of the brain Hypothalamus: thermostat and more Hippocampus: remember it Amygdala: inner feelings Basal ganglia: more than habit-forming Brainstem: the brain’s wakeup call Cerebellum: walking tall The neuroendocrine and neuroimmune systems: more brain–body connections The neuroendocrine system: it’s hormonal! The neuroimmune system: how the brain fights disease Looking at levels: The musical brain Probing the brain The damaged brain: what’s missing? Recording techniques: the music of the cells Neuroimaging: picturing the living brain Visualising brain structure Visualising brain function Stimulation: tickling the neurons Genes, brain and environment: the brain in the world Genes as blueprints: born to be wild? Genetic programmes: the genes matter Tuning genetic programmes: the environment matters Genes and environment: a single system Environment and genes: a two-way street Behavioural genetics Heritability, not inheritability Twin studies: only shared genes? Adoption studies: separating genes and environment? Review and remember! Chapter 4 Sensory and perceptual processes: how the world enters the mind Vision: a window on the world Seeing stars: astronomical anomalies at Greenwich Visual sensation: more than meets the eye Psychophysics: a world of experience How do objects enter the mind? Let there be light The brain’s eye: more than a camera Colour vision: mixing and matching Colour blindness Visual problems: distorted windows on the world Early stages of visual perception: organising the world Perceptual organisation: seeing the forest through the trees Perceptual constancies: stabilising the world Knowing the distance Later stages of visual perception: recognition and identification Knowing more than you can see Informed perception: the active viewer Combining what and where: faces and gazes Identifying faces: a special brain system? Identifying gaze direction: where’s something important? Attention: the gateway to awareness What grabs attention? Active searching: not just what grabs attention Brain networks of attention Limits of attention Seeing without awareness Looking at levels: Attention, inattention and cellphones Hearing Auditory sensation: if a tree falls but nobody hears it, is there a sound? Sound waves: being pressured The brain’s ear: more than a microphone Deafness: hear today, gone tomorrow Early stages of auditory perception: organising the auditory world Sorting out sounds: from one, many Locating sounds: why two ears are better than one Later stages of auditory perception: recognition and identification More than meets the ear Music: hearing for pleasure Sensing and perceiving in other ways Smell: a nose for news? Distinguishing odours: lock and key Olfaction gone awry: is it safe to cook without smell? Pheromones: another kind of scents? Taste: the mouth has it Sweet, sour, salty, bitter and umami Taste and smell Somaesthetic senses: not just skin deep Kinaesthetic sense: a moving sense Vestibular sense: being oriented Touch: feeling well Temperature Pain Other senses Magnetic sense: only for the birds? Extrasensory perception (ESP) Review and remember! Chapter 5 Consciousness: focus on awareness The nature of consciousness Functions of consciousness Altered states of consciousness To sleep, perchance to dream Stages of sleep: working through the night Stage 1 Stage 2 Stages 3 and 4 REM and NREM sleep Sleep cycles Sleep deprivation: is less just as good? REM rebound Sleep deprivation: what happens when you skimp on sleep? Understanding research: Sleep deprivation The function of sleep Evolutionary theory Restorative theory Facilitating learning Dream on What triggers particular dreams? Why do we dream? The brain asleep The chemistry of sleep: ups and downs Circadian rhythms Troubled sleep Night terrors: not your usual nightmare Narcolepsy: asleep at the drop of a hat Insomnia Sleep apnea Drugs and alcohol Substance use: normal or abnormal? Depressants: focus on alcohol Biological effects of alcohol Psychological effects of alcohol Chronic abuse: more than a bad habit Other depressants Stimulants Cocaine Crack Other stimulants Narcotic analgesics: focus on heroin Hallucinogens: focus on LSD A creativity boost? Other recreational drugs: focus on cannabis Looking at levels: Short- and long-term effects of using cannabis Review and remember! Chapter 6 Learning Classical conditioning Pavlov’s experiments The three phases of classical conditioning Variations of the procedure Classical conditioning: how it works Conditioned emotions: getting a gut response Preparedness and counter-preparedness Extinction and spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning: gone today, here tomorrow Generalisation and discrimination in classical conditioning: seen one, seen ’em all? Cognition and the conditioned stimulus Dissecting conditioning: mechanisms Learning to be afraid Learning when to blink Classical conditioning applied Drug use and abuse Therapy techniques Advertising Food and taste aversion Understanding research: The discovery of taste aversion Conditioning and chemotherapy Conditioning the immune system Operant conditioning The roots of operant conditioning: its discovery and how it works Thorndike’s puzzle box The Skinner box Principles of operant conditioning Reinforcement: getting your just desserts Punishment Primary and secondary reinforcers Immediate versus delayed reinforcement Beyond basic reinforcement Generalisation and discrimination in operant conditioning Extinction and spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning: gone today, back tomorrow Building complicated behaviours: shaping up Reinforcement schedules: an hourly or a piece-rate wage? New Zealand research: The Matching Law – all behaviour is choice The operant brain Operant conditioning: a multifaceted process Classical conditioning versus operant conditioning: are they really different? Looking at levels: Facial expressions as reinforcement andpunishment Cognitive and social learning Cognitive learning Insight learning: seeing the connection Observational learning: to see is to know Learning from models ‘Do as I do’ ‘Television made me do it’ Interview: Professor Michael Davison, The University of Auckland Review and remember! Chapter 7 Memory: living with yesterday Encoding information into memory: time and space are of the essence Types of memory store Sensory memory: lingering sensations Short-term memory: the contents of consciousness Long-term memory: records of experience Making memories Coding: packaged to store Consolidation and reconsolidation Variations in processing: why ‘thinking it through’ is a good idea Emotionally charged memories Storing information: not just one LTM Semantic versus episodic memory Explicit versus implicit memories: not just the facts, ma’am Classically conditioned responses Non-associative learning Habits Skills: automatic versus controlled processing Priming Biological foundations of memory Specialised brain areas Linking up new connections Genes and memory Stressed memories Looking at levels: Autobiographical memory Interview: Associate Professor Donna Rose Addis, The University of Auckland Retrieving information from memory: more than reactivating the past The act of remembering: reconstructing buried cities Recognition versus recall Understanding research: A better police line-up The role of cues: hints on where to dig Supplying your own cues Fact, fiction and forgetting: when memory goes wrong False memories Implanting memories Distinguishing fact from fiction Forgetting: many ways to lose it Encoding failure: lost in translation Decay: fade away Interference: tangled up in memory Intentional forgetting: out of mind, out of sight Amnesia: not just forgetting to remember Repressed memories: real or imagined? Improving memory: tricks and tools Enhancing encoding: new habits and special tricks Organise it! Process it! Mnemonic tricks: going the extra mile Enhancing memory retrieval: knowing where and how to dig Review and remember! Chapter 8 Language and thinking: what humans do best Language: more than meaningful sounds The essentials: what makes language language? Phonology: some say ‘toMAYto’ Syntax: the rules of the road Semantics: the meaning is the message Pragmatics: being indirect Understanding research: Untangling ambiguity during comprehension Language development: out of the mouths of babes How is language acquired? Foundations of language: organising the linguistic world Getting the words Grammar: not from school Biological bases of language development Other ways to communicate: are they language? Non-verbal communication Sign language Gesture: is it just for show? Aping language Bilingualism: a window of opportunity? Means of thought: words, images, concepts Words: inner speech and spoken thoughts Putting thoughts into words Does language shape thought? Mental imagery: perception without sensation Mental space The visualising brain Limitations of mental images as vehicles of thought Concepts: neither images nor words Prototypes: an ostrich is a bad bird How are concepts organised? Concepts in the brain Problem-solving Solving problems: more than inspiration Solving the representation problem: it’s all in how you look at it Algorithms and heuristics: getting from here to there Solving problems by analogy: comparing features Sudden solutions Expertise: why hard work pays off Logic, reasoning and decision-making Are people logical? How people reason Logical errors Framing decisions Heuristics and biases: cognitive illusions? Representativeness Availability Emotions and decision-making: having a hunch Thinking and reasoning in non-human animals Clever crows Looking at levels: The Ultimatum Game Review and remember! Chapter 9 Types of intelligence: what does it mean to be smart? Measuring intelligence: what is IQ? A brief history of intelligence testing Binet and Simon: testing to help Terman and Wechsler: tests for everyone Scoring IQ tests: measuring the mind Interpreting IQ scores: standardised samples and norming Reliability and validity IQ and achievement: IQ in the real world Analysing intelligence: one ability or many? Psychometric approaches: IQ, g and specialised abilities Spearman’s g factor Thurstone’s primary mental abilities Cattell and Horn’s fluid and crystallised intelligences Carroll’s three-stratum theory of cognitive ability The g factor and specific abilities in the real world Emotional intelligence: knowing feelings Multiple intelligences: more than one way to shine? Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences: something for everyone Sternberg’s analytic, practical and creative intelligences The nature of intelligence: a summary of six views What makes us smart? Nature, nurture and the machinery of intelligence Brain size and intelligence: is bigger always better? Speed: of the essence? Working memory: juggling more balls Working memory and intelligence Working memory, intelligence and the brain Smart genes, smart environment: a single system Genetic effects: how important are genes for intelligence? Environmental effects: more real than apparent? Group differences in intelligence Within-group versus between-group differences Race differences Sex differences Boosting IQ: pumping up the mind’s muscle The Flynn effect: another reason to appreciate being young Accidentally making kids smarter: the Pygmalion Effect Intelligence-enhancement programmes: mental workouts Looking at levels: Stereotype threat Diversity in intelligence Intellectual disability: people with special needs Genetic influences: when good genes go bad Environmental influences: bad luck, bad behaviour Causes of intellectual disability: a summary The gifted Creative smarts Creative thinking: not just inspiration What makes a person creative? Enhancing creativity Understanding research: Constrained creativity Review and remember! Chapter 10: Emotion and motivation: feeling and striving Emotion: I feel, therefore I am Types of emotion: what can you feel? Basic emotions Separate but equal emotions What causes emotions? Theories of emotion: brain, body and world Physiological profiles: are emotions just bodily responses? Cognitive interpretation Fear: the amygdala and you Positive emotions: more than feeling good Expressing emotions: letting it all hang out? Culture and emotional expression: rules of the mode Understanding research: Culture and emoting Body language: broadcasting feelings Emotion regulation Perceiving emotions: a form of mind-reading Reading cues Perceiving by imitating: making the match Individual differences in emotion perception Looking at levels: Lie detection Motivation and reward: more than feeling good Getting motivated: sources and theories of motivation Instincts: my genes made me do it Drives and homeostasis: staying in balance Arousal theory: avoiding boredom, avoiding overload Incentives and reward: happy expectations Learned helplessness: unhappy expectations Needs and wants: the stick and the carrot Is there more than one type of reward? Types of need: no shortage of shortages Achievement in individualist versus collectivist cultures Hunger and eating: not just about fuelling the body Eating behaviour: the hungry mind in the hungry body Is being hungry the opposite of being full? Appetite: a moving target Why does it taste good? Overeating: when enough is not enough Set point: your normal weight Obesity Dieting Sex: not just about having babies Sexual behaviour Sexual responses: step by step The role of hormones: do chemicals dictate behaviour? Sexual stimuli Mating preferences Sexual orientation: more than a choice The biology of homosexuality The environment and homosexuality Review and remember! Chapter 11 Personality: vive la différence! Personality: historical perspectives Freud’s theory: the dynamic personality The structure of personality Personality development: avoiding arrest Defence mechanisms: protecting the self Freud’s followers Critiquing Freudian theory: is it science? Humanistic psychology: thinking positively Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers What exactly is personality? Personality: traits and situations The power of the situation Interactions between situation and personality Factors of personality: the big five? three? more? Measuring personality: is Grumpy really grumpy? Interviews Observation Inventories: check this Projective tests: faces in the clouds Biological influences on personality Temperament: waxing hot or cold Shyness: the wallflower temperament Sensation-seeking: what’s new? Biologically based theories of personality Eysenck’s theory Reinforcement sensitivity theory Looking at levels: Personality, learning and the brain Cloninger’s theory Zuckerman’s theory Comparing the biologically based theories Genes and personality: born to be mild? Understanding research: The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart (MISTRA) Heritability of personality Heritability of specific behaviours Learning and the cognitive elements of personality Learning to have personality: genes are not destiny The sociocognitive view of personality: you are what you expect Expectancies Self-efficacy Reciprocal determinism Sociocultural influences on personality Birth order: are you number one? Sex differences in personality: nature and nurture Sociocultural explanations Biological explanations Culture and personality Personality changes within a culture, over time: the times they are a-changin’ Consistent personality differences across cultures: different strokes for different countries Understanding cultural differences in personality: how do differences arise? Review and remember! Chapter 12 Psychology over the life-span: growing up, growing older, growing wiser In the beginning: from conception to birth Prenatal development: nature and nurture from the start In the beginning Development in the womb Learning and behaviour in the womb Understanding research: Stimulating the unborn The newborn: a work in progress Sensory capacities Reflexes Temperament: instant personality Infancy and childhood: taking off Physical and motor development: getting control Perceptual and cognitive development: extended horizons Perceptual development: opening windows on the world Memory development: living beyond the here and now Looking at levels: Effects of cultural, social, cognitive and brain processes on memory development Stages of cognitive development: Piaget’s theory The child’s concepts: beyond Piaget Information-processing and neural development Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory: outside/inside Social and emotional development: the child in the world Attachment: more than dependency Is day-care bad for children? Self-concept and identity: the growing self Interview: Associate Professor Elaine Reese, University of Otago Gender identity and gender roles Moral development: the right stuff Adolescence: between two worlds Physical development: in puberty’s wake Cognitive development: getting it all together More reasoned reasoning? Adolescent egocentrism: it’s all in your point of view Social and emotional development: new rules, new roles ‘Storm and stress’: raging hormones? Evolving peer relationships Adulthood and ageing: the continuously changing self Becoming an adult The changing body: what’s inevitable, what’s not Learning to live with ageing Perception and cognition in adulthood: taking the good with the bad Perception: through a glass darkly? Memory: difficulties in digging it out Intelligence and specific abilities: different strokes for different folks Social and emotional development during adulthood Theories of psychosocial stages in adulthood Looking at levels: Keeping the ageing brain sharp Review and remember! Chapter 13 Social psychology: meeting of the minds Social cognition: thinking about people Making an impression Thin slices are enough Halo and primacy effects Attitudes and behaviour: feeling and doing Attitudes and cognitions Predicting behaviour Behaviour affects attitudes Assessing attitudes directly and indirectly Cognitive dissonance Attitude change: persuasion Stereotypes: seen one, seen ’em all Stereotypes affect attention, cognition and behaviour Cognition and prejudice Processes perpetuating unconscious prejudice Why does prejudice exist? Changing prejudice: easier said than done Attributions: making sense of events What is the cause? Taking shortcuts: attributional biases Social behaviour: interacting with people Relationships: having a date, having a partner Liking: to like or not to like Loving: how do I love thee? Making love last Mating preferences: your cave or mine? Social organisation: group rules, group roles Norms: the rules of the group Roles and status When roles become reality: the Stanford Prison Experiment Yielding to others: going along with the group Conformity and independence: doing what’s expected Obedience: doing as you’re told Performance in groups: working together Decision-making in groups: paths to a decision Social loafing and social compensation Social facilitation: everybody loves an audience Helping behaviour: helping others Prosocial behaviour Bystander intervention Māori and psychology Looking at levels: Social attention A final word: ethics and social psychology Review and remember! Chapter 14 Stress and health What is stress? Stress: the big picture The biology of stress The alarm phase: fight or flight The resistance phase The exhaustion phase From stressor to allostatic load: multiple stressors and their time course When stressed, women may tend and befriend It’s how you think of it: interpreting stimuli as stressors Appraisal: stressors in the eyes of the beholder Perceived control Sources of stress Internal conflict Life’s hassles Work- and economic-related factors Hostility Interview: Professor Michael O'Driscoll, University of Waikato Stress, disease and health The immune system: catching cold Cancer Heart disease How stress affects the heart Stress, emotions and heart disease Lifestyle can make a difference Looking at levels: Voodoo death Review and remember! Chapter 15 Psychological disorders: more than everyday problems Identifying psychological disorders: what’s abnormal? Defining abnormality Distress Impairment Danger Cultural and social influences Explaining abnormality The brain: genes, neurotransmitters and brain structure and function The person: behaviours, thoughts and biases, and emotions The group: social and cultural factors Categorising disorders: is a rose still a rose by any other name? Structure of the DSM Disadvantages and advantages of the DSM DSM-5: a controversial publication Depressive disorders and bipolar disorder Depressive disorders: not just feeling blue Bipolar disorder: going to extremes Explaining depression and bipolar disorder Level of the brain in depression and bipolar disorder Level of the person in depression and bipolar disorder Level of the group in depression and bipolar disorder Interacting levels: depression is as depression does Anxiety disorders Panic disorder Level of the brain in panic disorder Level of the person in panic disorder Level of the group in panic disorder Phobias: social and specific Level of the brain in phobias Level of the person in phobias Level of the group in phobias Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) OCD from a multilevel perspective Level of the brain in OCD Level of the person in OCD Level of the group in OCD Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) PTSD from a multilevel perspective Level of the brain in PTSD Level of the person in PTSD Level of the group in PTSD Interacting levels: individual differences in responses to trauma Schizophrenia Symptoms: what schizophrenia looks like Positive symptoms Negative symptoms Diagnosing schizophrenia Why does this happen to some people, but not to others? Level of the brain in schizophrenia Level of the person in schizophrenia Level of the group in schizophrenia Interacting levels in schizophrenia Dissociative disorders and eating disorders Dissociative disorders Dissociative amnesia and dissociative fugue Dissociative identity disorder Eating disorders: you are how you eat? Anorexia nervosa: you can be too thin Bulimia nervosa Explaining eating disorders Looking at levels: Binge eating Personality disorders Anti-social personality disorder (ASPD) Understanding ASPD Level of the brain in ASPD Level of the person in ASPD Level of the group in ASPD A cautionary note about diagnosis Review and remember! Chapter 16 Treatment: healing actions, healing words Historical influences on psychotherapy: insight-oriented therapies Psychodynamic therapy: origins in psychoanalysis Theory of psychodynamic therapy Techniques of psychodynamic therapy Humanistic therapy: client-centred therapy Theory of client-centred therapy Techniques of client-centred therapy Evaluating insight-oriented therapies Cognitive–behaviour therapy Behaviour therapy and its techniques Theory of behaviour therapy Techniques of behaviour therapy Cognitive therapy and techniques: it’s the thought that counts Theory of cognitive therapy Techniques of cognitive therapy Cognitive–behaviour therapy (CBT) Biomedical therapies Psychopharmacology Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders Depressive disorders and bipolar disorder Anxiety disorders Electroconvulsive therapy: a controversial treatment Transcranial magnetic stimulation Other forms of treatment Modalities: when two or more isn’t a crowd Group therapy Family therapy Self-help therapies Innovations in psychotherapy Psychotherapy integration: mixing and matching Time and therapy: therapy protocols Prevention: better than cure Which therapy works best? Issues in psychotherapy research Positive change in therapy: the healing powers Comparing therapy approaches and the allegiance effect What’s an appropriate control group? Reducing confounds Randomised controlled trials Understanding research: For OCD: CBT plus medication, without exclusion Which treatment works best for which disorder? Therapy, medication or both? Looking at levels: Treating OCD Review and remember! References Glossary Name index Subject index Credits