Properzio: Il Libro Terzo delle Elegie

Cengel and Cimbala's Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications, communicates directly with tomorrow's engineers in a simple yet precise manner, while covering the basic principles and equations of fluid mechanics in the context of numerous and diverse real-world engineering examples. The text helps students develop an intuitive understanding of fluid mechanics by emphasizing the physics, using figures, numerous photographs and visual aids to reinforce the physics. The highly visual approach enhances the learning of fluid mechanics by students. This text distinguishes itself from others by the way the material is presented - in a progressive order from simple to more difficult, building each chapter upon foundations laid down in previous chapters. In this way, even the traditionally challenging aspects of fluid mechanics can be learned effectively.McGraw-Hill Education's Connect, is also available as an optional, add on item. Connect is the only integrated learning system that empowers students by continuously adapting to deliver precisely what they need, when they need it, how they need it, so that class time is more effective. Connect allows the professor to assign homework, quizzes, and tests easily and automatically grades and records the scores of the student's work. Problems are randomized to prevent sharing of answers an may also have a "multi-step solution" which helps move the students' learning along if they experience difficulty. Cover 1 Title 4 Copyright 5 Contents 9 Preface 16 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS 28 1–1 Introduction 29 What Is a Fluid? 29 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics 31 1–2 A Brief History of Fluid Mechanics 33 1–3 The No-Slip Condition 35 1–4 Classification of Fluid Flows 36 Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow 37 Internal versus External Flow 37 Compressible versus Incompressible Flow 37 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow 38 Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow 38 Steady versus Unsteady Flow 39 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows 40 Uniform versus Nonuniform Flow 41 1–5 System and Control Volume 42 1–6 Importance of Dimensions and Units 43 Some SI and English Units 44 Dimensional Homogeneity 46 Unity Conversion Ratios 48 1–7 Modeling in Engineering 49 1–8 Problem-Solving Technique 51 Step 1: Problem Statement 51 Step 2: Schematic 51 Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations 51 Step 4: Physical Laws 51 Step 5: Properties 52 Step 6: Calculations 52 Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion 52 1–9 Engineering Software Packages 53 Equation Solvers 54 CFD Software 55 1–10 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Digits 55 Application Spotlight: What Nuclear Blasts and Raindrops Have in Common 59 Summary 60 References and Suggested Reading 60 Problems 60 CHAPTER TWO: PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 64 2–1 Introduction 65 Continuum 65 2–2 Density and Specific Gravity 66 Density of Ideal Gases 67 2–3 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation 68 2–4 Energy and Specific Heats 70 2–5 Compressibility and Speed of Sound 72 Coefficient of Compressibility 72 Coefficient of Volume Expansion 73 Speed of Sound and Mach Number 76 2–6 Viscosity 78 2–7 Surface Tension and Capillary Effect 83 Capillary Effect 86 Summary 89 Application Spotlight: Cavitation 90 References and Suggested Reading 91 Problems 91 CHAPTER THREE: PRESSURE AND FLUID STATICS 104 3–1 Pressure 105 Pressure at a Point 106 Variation of Pressure with Depth 107 3–2 Pressure Measurement Devices 111 The Barometer 111 The Manometer 114 Other Pressure Measurement Devices 117 3–3 Introduction to Fluid Statics 118 3–4 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces 119 Special Case: Submerged Rectangular Plate 122 3–5 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved Surfaces 124 3–6 Buoyancy and Stability 127 Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies 131 3–7 Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion 133 Special Case 1: Fluids at Rest 135 Special Case 2: Free Fall of a Fluid Body 135 Acceleration on a Straight Path 135 Rotation in a Cylindrical Container 137 Summary 141 References and Suggested Reading 142 Problems 142 CHAPTER FOUR: FLUID KINEMATICS 164 4–1 Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions 165 Acceleration Field 167 Material Derivative 170 4–2 Flow Patterns and Flow Visualization 172 Streamlines and Streamtubes 172 Pathlines 173 Streaklines 175 Timelines 177 Refractive Flow Visualization Techniques 178 Surface Flow Visualization Techniques 179 4–3 Plots of Fluid Flow Data 179 Profile Plots 180 Vector Plots 180 Contour Plots 181 4–4 Other Kinematic Descriptions 182 Types of Motion or Deformation of Fluid Elements 182 4–5 Vorticity and Rotationality 187 Comparison of Two Circular Flows 190 4–6 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 191 Alternate Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem 196 Relationship between Material Derivative and RTT 199 Summary 199 Application Spotlight: Fluidic Actuators 200 Application Spotlight: Smelling Food; the Human Airway 201 References and Suggested Reading 202 Problems 202 CHAPTER FIVE: BERNOULLI AND ENERGY EQUATIONS 216 5–1 Introduction 217 Conservation of Mass 217 The Linear Momentum Equation 217 Conservation of Energy 217 5–2 Conservation of Mass 218 Mass and Volume Flow Rates 218 Conservation of Mass Principle 220 Moving or Deforming Control Volumes 222 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes 222 Special Case: Incompressible Flow 223 5–3 Mechanical Energy and Efficiency 225 5–4 The Bernoulli Equation 230 Acceleration of a Fluid Particle 231 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation 231 Force Balance across Streamlines 233 Unsteady, Compressible Flow 234 Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures 234 Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation 235 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL) 237 Applications of the Bernoulli Equation 239 5–5 General Energy Equation 246 Energy Transfer by Heat, Q 247 Energy Transfer by Work, W 247 5–6 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows 250 Special Case: Incompressible Flow with No Mechanical Work Devices and Negligible Friction 253 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor, α 253 Summary 260 References and Suggested Reading 261 Problems 262 CHAPTER SIX: MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS 276 6–1 Newton's Laws 277 6–2 Choosing a Control Volume 278 6–3 Forces Acting on a Control Volume 279 6–4 The Linear Momentum Equation 282 Special Cases 284 Momentum-Flux Correction Factor, ß 284 Steady Flow 286 Flow with No External Forces 287 6–5 Review of Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum 296 6–6 The Angular Momentum Equation 299 Special Cases 301 Flow with No External Moments 302 Radial-Flow Devices 302 Application Spotlight: Manta Ray Swimming 307 Summary 309 References and Suggested Reading 309 Problems 310 CHAPTER SEVEN: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND MODELING 324 7–1 Dimensions and Units 325 7–2 Dimensional Homogeneity 326 Nondimensionalization of Equations 327 7–3 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity 332 7–4 The Method of Repeating Variables and the Buckingham Pi Theorem 336 Historical Spotlight: Persons Honored by Nondimensional Parameters 344 7–5 Experimental Testing, Modeling, and Incomplete Similarity 352 Setup of an Experiment and Correlation of Experimental Data 352 Incomplete Similarity 353 Wind Tunnel Testing 353 Flows with Free Surfaces 356 Application Spotlight: How a Fly Flies 359 Summary 360 References and Suggested Reading 360 Problems 360 CHAPTER EIGHT: INTERNAL FLOW 378 8–1 Introduction 379 8–2 Laminar and Turbulent Flows 380 Reynolds Number 381 8–3 The Entrance Region 382 Entry Lengths 383 8–4 Laminar Flow in Pipes 384 Pressure Drop and Head Loss 386 Effect of Gravity on Velocity and Flow Rate in Laminar Flow 388 Laminar Flow in Noncircular Pipes 389 8–5 Turbulent Flow in Pipes 392 Turbulent Shear Stress 393 Turbulent Velocity Profile 395 The Moody Chart and Its Associated Equations 397 Types of Fluid Flow Problems 399 8–6 Minor Losses 406 8–7 Piping Networks and Pump Selection 413 Series and Parallel Pipes 413 Piping Systems with Pumps and Turbines 415 8–8 Flow Rate and Velocity Measurement 423 Pitot and Pitot-Static Probes 423 Obstruction Flowmeters: Orifice, Venturi, and Nozzle Meters 425 Positive Displacement Flowmeters 428 Turbine Flowmeters 429 Variable-Area Flowmeters (Rotameters) 430 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 431 Electromagnetic Flowmeters 433 Vortex Flowmeters 434 Thermal (Hot-Wire and Hot-Film) Anemometers 435 Laser Doppler Velocimetry 437 Particle Image Velocimetry 438 Introduction to Biofluid Mechanics 441 Application Spotlight: PIV Applied to Cardiac Flow 447 Application Spotlight: Multicolor Particle Shadow Velocimetry/Accelerometry 448 Summary 450 References and Suggested Reading 451 Problems 452 CHAPTER NINE: DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW 470 9–1 Introduction 471 9–2 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation 471 Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem 472 Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume 473 Alternative Form of the Continuity Equation 476 Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates 477 Special Cases of the Continuity Equation 477 9–3 The Stream Function 483 The Stream Function in Cartesian Coordinates 483 The Stream Function in Cylindrical Coordinates 490 The Compressible Stream Function 491 9–4 The Differential Linear Momentum Equation—Cauchy's Equation 492 Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem 492 Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume 493 Alternative Form of Cauchy's Equation 496 Derivation Using Newton's Second Law 496 9–5 The Navier–Stokes Equation 497 Introduction 497 Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids 498 Derivation of the Navier–Stokes Equation for Incompressible, Isothermal Flow 499 Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations in Cartesian Coordinates 501 Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations in Cylindrical Coordinates 502 9–6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow Problems 503 Calculation of the Pressure Field for a Known Velocity Field 503 Exact Solutions of the Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations 508 Differential Analysis of Biofluid Mechanics Flows 526 Summary 529 References and Suggested Reading 529 Application Spotlight: The No-Slip Boundary Condition 530 Problems 531 CHAPTER TEN: APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS OF THE NAVIER–STOKES EQUATION 546 10–1 Introduction 547 10–2 Nondimensionalized Equations of Motion 548 10–3 The Creeping Flow Approximation 551 Drag on a Sphere in Creeping Flow 554 10–4 Approximation for Inviscid Regions of Flow 556 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation in Inviscid Regions of Flow 557 10–5 The Irrotational Flow Approximation 560 Continuity Equation 560 Momentum Equation 562 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation in Irrotational Regions of Flow 562 Two-Dimensional Irrotational Regions of Flow 565 Superposition in Irrotational Regions of Flow 569 Elementary Planar Irrotational Flows 569 Irrotational Flows Formed by Superposition 576 10–6 The Boundary Layer Approximation 585 The Boundary Layer Equations 590 The Boundary Layer Procedure 595 Displacement Thickness 599 Momentum Thickness 602 Turbulent Flat Plate Boundary Layer 603 Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradients 609 The Momentum Integral Technique for Boundary Layers 614 Summary 622 References and Suggested Reading 623 Application Spotlight: Droplet Formation 624 Problems 625 CHAPTER ELEVEN: EXTERNAL FLOW: DRAG AND LIFT 638 11–1 Introduction 639 11–2 Drag and Lift 641 11–3 Friction and Pressure Drag 645 Reducing Drag by Streamlining 646 Flow Separation 647 11–4 Drag Coefficients of Common Geometries 648 Biological Systems and Drag 649 Drag Coefficients of Vehicles 652 Superposition 654 11–5 Parallel Flow over Flat Plates 656 Friction Coefficient 658 11–6 Flow over Cylinders and Spheres 660 Effect of Surface Roughness 663 11–7 Lift 665 Finite-Span Wings and Induced Drag 669 Lift Generated by Spinning 670 Flying in Nature! 674 Summary 677 Application Spotlight: Drag Reduction 679 References and Suggested Reading 680 Problems 680 CHAPTER TWELVE: COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 694 12–1 Stagnation Properties 695 12–2 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 698 Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area 700 Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases 702 12–3 Isentropic Flow through Nozzles 704 Converging Nozzles 705 Converging–Diverging Nozzles 709 12–4 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves 712 Normal Shocks 713 Oblique Shocks 718 Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves 723 12–5 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction (Rayleigh Flow) 728 Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow 733 Choked Rayleigh Flow 735 12–6 Adiabatic Duct Flow with Friction (Fanno Flow) 737 Property Relations for Fanno Flow 740 Choked Fanno Flow 743 Application Spotlight: Shock-Wave/Boundary-Layer Interactions 747 Summary 748 References and Suggested Reading 749 Problems 749 CHAPTER THIRTEEN: OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW 760 13–1 Classification of Open-Channel Flows 761 Uniform and Varied Flows 761 Laminar and Turbulent Flows in Channels 762 13–2 Froude Number and Wave Speed 764 Speed of Surface Waves 766 13–3 Specific Energy 768 13–4 Conservation of Mass and Energy Equations 771 13–5 Uniform Flow in Channels 772 Critical Uniform Flow 774 Superposition Method for Nonuniform Perimeters 775 13–6 Best Hydraulic Cross Sections 778 Rectangular Channels 780 Trapezoidal Channels 780 13–7 Gradually Varied Flow 782 Liquid Surface Profiles in Open Channels, y(x) 784 Some Representative Surface Profiles 787 Numerical Solution of Surface Profile 789 13–8 Rapidly Varied Flow and the Hydraulic Jump 792 13–9 Flow Control and Measurement 796 Underflow Gates 797 Overflow Gates 799 Application Spotlight: Bridge Scour 806 Summary 807 References and Suggested Reading 808 Problems 808 CHAPTER FOURTEEN: TURBOMACHINERY 820 14–1 Classifications and Terminology 821 14–2 Pumps 823 Pump Performance Curves and Matching a Pump to a Piping System 824 Pump Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head 830 Pumps in Series and Parallel 833 Positive-Displacement Pumps 836 Dynamic Pumps 839 Centrifugal Pumps 839 Axial Pumps 849 14–3 Pump Scaling Laws 857 Dimensional Analysis 857 Pump Specific Speed 860 Affinity Laws 862 14–4 Turbines 866 Positive-Displacement Turbines 867 Dynamic Turbines 867 Impulse Turbines 868 Reaction Turbines 870 Gas and Steam Turbines 880 Wind Turbines 880 14–5 Turbine Scaling Laws 888 Dimensionless Turbine Parameters 888 Turbine Specific Speed 891 Application Spotlight: Rotary Fuel Atomizers 894 Summary 895 References and Suggested Reading 896 Problems 896 CHAPTER FIFTEEN: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS 912 15–1 Introduction and Fundamentals 913 Motivation 913 Equations of Motion 913 Solution Procedure 914 Additional Equations of Motion 916 Grid Generation and Grid Independence 916 Boundary Conditions 921 Practice Makes Perfect 926 15–2 Laminar CFD Calculations 926 Pipe Flow Entrance Region at Re = 500 926 Flow around a Circular Cylinder at Re = 150 930 15–3 Turbulent CFD Calculations 935 Flow around a Circular Cylinder at Re = 10,000 938 Flow around a Circular Cylinder at Re = 10[sup(7)] 940 Design of the Stator for a Vane-Axial Flow Fan 940 15–4 CFD with Heat Transfer 948 Temperature Rise through a Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger 948 Cooling of an Array of Integrated Circuit Chips 950 15–5 Compressible Flow CFD Calculations 955 Compressible Flow through a Converging–Diverging Nozzle 956 Oblique Shocks over a Wedge 960 CFD Methods for Two-Phase Flows 961 15–6 Open-Channel Flow CFD Calculations 963 Flow over a Bump on the Bottom of a Channel 963 Flow through a Sluice Gate (Hydraulic Jump) 964 Summary 965 Application Spotlight: A Virtual Stomach 966 References and Suggested Reading 967 Problems 967 APPENDIX 1 PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS (SI UNITS) 974 TABLE A–1 Molar Mass, Gas Constant, and Ideal-Gas Specific Heats of Some Substances 975 TABLE A–2 Boiling and Freezing Point Properties 976 TABLE A–3 Properties of Saturated Water 977 TABLE A–4 Properties of Saturated Refrigerant-134a 978 TABLE A–5 Properties of Saturated Ammonia 979 TABLE A–6 Properties of Saturated Propane 980 TABLE A–7 Properties of Liquids 981 TABLE A–8 Properties of Liquid Metals 982 TABLE A–9 Properties of Air at 1 atm Pressure 983 TABLE A–10 Properties of Gases at 1 atm Pressure 984 TABLE A–11 Properties of the Atmosphere at High Altitude 986 FIGURE A–12 The Moody Chart for the Friction Factor for Fully Developed Flow in Circular Pipes 987 TABLE A–13 One-Dimensional Isentropic Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4 988 TABLE A–14 One-Dimensional Normal Shock Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4 989 TABLE A–15 Rayleigh Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4 990 TABLE A–16 Fanno Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4 991 APPENDIX 2 PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS (ENGLISH UNITS) 992 TABLE A–1E: Molar Mass, Gas Constant, and Ideal-Gas Specific Heats of Some Substances 993 TABLE A–2E: Boiling and Freezing Point Properties 994 TABLE A–3E: Properties of Saturated Water 995 TABLE A–4E: Properties of Saturated Refrigerant-134a 996 TABLE A–5E: Properties of Saturated Ammonia 997 TABLE A–6E: Properties of Saturated Propane 998 TABLE A–7E: Properties of Liquids 999 TABLE A–8E: Properties of Liquid Metals 1000 TABLE A–9E: Properties of Air at 1 atm Pressure 1001 TABLE A–10E: Properties of Gases at 1 atm Pressure 1002 TABLE A–11E: Properties of the Atmosphere at High Altitude 1004 Glossary 1006 A 1006 B 1006 C 1007 D 1008 E 1009 F 1009 G 1010 H 1010 I 1011 J 1011 K 1011 L 1012 M 1012 N 1013 P 1013 Q 1014 R 1014 S 1014 T 1017 U 1017 V 1017 W 1018 Index 1020 A 1020 B 1021 C 1022 D 1024 E 1025 F 1026 G 1028 H 1029 I 1029 J 1031 K 1031 L 1031 M 1032 N 1033 O 1034 P 1035 Q 1037 R 1037 S 1038 T 1040 U 1042 V 1042 W 1043 X 1044 Y 1044 Z 1044 Conversion Factors 1046 Nomenclature 1048 "Fluid mechanics is an exciting and fascinating subject with unlimited practical applications ranging from microscopic biological systems to automobiles, airplanes, and spacecraft propulsion. Fluid mechanics has also historically been one of the most challenging subjects for undergraduate students because proper analysis of fluid mechanics problems requires not only knowledge of the concepts but also physical intuition and experience. Our hope is that this book, through its careful explanations of concepts and its use of numerous practical examples, sketches, figures, and photographs, bridges the gap between knowledge and the proper application of that knowledge"-- Read more... Abstract: Communicates directly with tomorrow's engineers in a simple yet precise manner, while covering the basic principles and equations of fluid mechanics in the context of diverse real-world engineering examples. This text helps students develop an intuitive understanding of fluid mechanics by emphasizing the physics. Read more... "Fluid mechanics is an exciting and fascinating subject with unlimited practical applications ranging from microscopic biological systems to automobiles, airplanes, and spacecraft propulsion. Fluid mechanics has also historically been one of the most challenging subjects for undergraduate students because proper analysis of fluid mechanics problems requires not only knowledge of the concepts but also physical intuition and experience. Our hope is that this book, through its careful explanations of concepts and its use of numerous practical examples, sketches, figures, and photographs, bridges the gap between knowledge and the proper application of that knowledge"-- Provided by author