Pro-Poor Strategies in Urban Water Provisioning: What Kenyan Water Utilities Do and Why They Do It (IHE Delft PhD Thesis Series)

Water utilities are the main instrument for countries to achieve universal service coverage. In pursuing universal service coverage, water utilities have turned to pro-poor water services to extend water services in low-income areas. This thesis discusses the use of pro-poor water services by water utilities in Kenya, with the intention of highlighting the dimensions of the approach that require attention of policy makers and practitioners when engaging with the concept. Based on the analysis of the technologies, financial and organisational arrangements associated with the pro-poor concept, this thesis shows that the use of pro-poor strategies allows water utilities to reduce the risks of servicing low-income areas while still claiming to fulfil their mandate of providing access to all in a commercially viable manner. The analysis also shows that rather than a decision of the water utility, the choice for pro-poor strategies emerges as the result of a consensus or compromise between the different actors that constitute the broader institutional environment in which water utilities operate. The thesis concludes that while pro-poor water services may serve the interests of water utilities and other stakeholders, in the absence of well-directed subsidies and proper monitoring they will not result in low-income households benefiting from more affordable and reliable access to water. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Page Acknowledgments Summary Samenvatting Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Evolution of Pro-Poor Services 1.1.1 The International Drinking Water Decade and the Modern Infrastructural Ideal (MII) 1.1.2 Institutional Development and the Introduction of Appropriate Technologies 1.1.3 Commercialisation and the Promise of Universal Access 1.2 Research Objectives 1.3 Methodology 1.3.1 Research Strategy 1.3.2 Doing the Research 2 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction 2.2 From MII to Pro-Poor Services 2.3 Pro-Poor Services: Appropriate Technology, Finance and Organisation 2.3.1 Appropriate Technology 2.3.2 Pro-Poor Finance 2.3.3 Organisation: Community and Small-Scale Private Sector Involvement 2.4 Popularity of Pro-Poor Approaches: Balancing Financial and Social Objectives 2.5 Conclusion 3 Aligning Stakeholder Interests: How ‘Appropriate Technologies’ Have Become the Accepted Water Infrastructure Solutions for Low-Income Areas in Kenya 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Methodology 3.3 Case Study 3.4 Results: Unpacking the Interests and Preferences of the Different Actors 3.4.1 The Kenyan Government 3.4.2 The Donors 3.4.3 The Water Service Provider 3.4.4 The Small Scale Provider (The Cartels) 3.5 Discussion: Aligning the Interests and Interdependencies of Stakeholders and Appropriate Technologies 3.6 Conclusion 4 From Rowdy Cartels To Organized Ones? The Transfer of Power in Urban Water Supply in Kenya 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Approaches towards Formalization of Informal Providers 4.3 Methodology 4.4 Drivers for the Producer Perspective on Formalization 4.5 Formalizing Informal Providers through Partnership 4.5.1 From Cartels to Kiosk Operators 4.5.2 Partnerships with Landlords 4.5.3 From Cartels to Master Operators 4.5.4 Discussion: Serving the Poor or Satisfying Cartels 4.6 Concluding Remarks 5 The Pragmatism of Adopting Pre-Paid Water Dispensers: Insights from Two Kenyan Water Utilities 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Theoretical Framework: Pragmatism 5.3 Methodology 5.4 The Mixed Mandate of Kenyan Water Utilities 5.5 Water Service to Low-Income Areas in Kisumu and Nakuru 5.6 The reasons for Introducing Pre-paid Water Dispensers in Kisumu 5.6.1 Removing the Intermediary and Improving Services 5.7 The introduction of PPDs in Nakuru 5.8 Discussion 5.8.1 The Practicality of Solutions 5.8.2 The Existence of Pluralism 5.8.3 The Importance of Participation 5.8.4 The Provisional Nature of Solutions 5.8.5 The Positioning of the Water Utilities 5.9 Conclusion 6 The Appropriateness of ‘Appropriate Technologies’ in Improving Access to Utility Water in Urban Low-Income Areas: Evidence from Kenya 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Service Differentiation in Urban Water Supply 6.3 Methodology 6.3.1 Study Area: Institutional Set-Up for Urban Water Supply in Kenya 6.3.2 The Case Studies 6.3.3 Study Methods 6.4 Results 6.4.1 Water Technologies 6.4.2 Affordability of Water Supplied 6.4.3 Reliability of Water Sources 6.4.4 Accessibility 6.4.5 Implications on Water Consumption 6.5 Discussion and Concluding Remarks: For Whom are Appropriate Technologies Appropriate? 7 Conclusion 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Pro-Poor As a Pragmatic Move to Balance Dual Mandates of Water Utilities 7.3 Pro-Poor Strategies as a Pragmatic Move to Align the Interest of Stakeholders 7.4 Reflections: The Equity of Pro-Poor Services References Appendices Appendix A: Interviewing guide Appendix B: Data collection guide for the utilities Appendix C: Questionnaire for household survey List of acronyms List of Tables List of Figures About the author This book explores how water utilities mobilize pro-poor strategies to address the challenge of ensuring universal access in cities with rapidly expanding unplanned settlements. It goes beyond ideological discussions to examine actual water service provisioning practices, identifying with those responsible: water utilities.