Principles of Modern Chemistry

Unit I. Introduction to the Study of Modern Chemistry.1. The Atom in Modern Chemistry.2. Chemical Formulas, Equations, and Reaction Yields.Unit II. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure.3. Atomic Shells and Classical Models of Chemical Bonding.4. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics.5. Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Structure.6. Quantum Mechanics and Molecular Structure.7. Bonding in Organic Molecules.8. Bonding in Transition Metal Compounds and Coordination Complexes.Unit III. Kinetic Molecular Description of the States of Matter.9. The Gaseous State.10. Solids, Liquids, and Phase Transitions.11. Solutions.Unit IV. Equilibrium in Chemical Reactions.12. Thermodynamic Processes and Thermochemistry.13. Spontaneous Processes and Thermodynamic Equilibrium.14. Chemical Equilibrium.15. Acid-Base Equilibria.16. Solubility and Precipitation Equilibria.17. Electrochemistry.Unit V. Rates of Chemical and Physical Processes.18. Chemical Kinetics.19. Nuclear Chemistry.20. Molecular Spectroscopy and Photochemistry.Unit VI. Materials.21. Structure and Bonding in Solids.22. Inorganic Materials.23. Polymeric Materials and Soft Condensed Matter.Appendix A. Scientific Notation and Experimental Error.Appendix B. SI Units, Unit Conversions, and Physics for General Chemistry.Appendix C. Mathematics for General Chemistry.Appendix D. Standard Chemical Thermodynamic Properties.Appendix E. Standard Reaction Potentials at 25 DegreesC.Appendix F. Physical Properties of the Elements.Appendix G. Solutions to the Odd-Numbered Problems.Index/Glossary. Cover 1 ES2 2 ES3 3 ES4 4 Title 5 Statement 6 Copyright 7 In Appreciation of 8 Brief Contents 9 Contents 10 Applications 15 Preface 16 About the Authors 31 Unit I: Introduction to the Study of Modern Chemistry 33 Ch 1: The Atom in Modern Chemistry 35 1.1: The Nature of Modern Chemistry 35 1.2: Elements: The Building Blocks of Matter 38 1.3: Indirect Evidence for the Existence of Atoms: Laws of Chemical Combination 41 1.4: The Physical Structure of Atoms 48 1.5: Mass Spectrometry, Isotopes, and the Measurement of Relative Mass 56 1.6: The Mole: Counting Molecules by Weighing 59 Ch 1: Chapter Summary 66 Ch 1: Concepts and Skills 66 Ch 1: Problems 68 Ch 1: Additional Problems 70 Ch 2: Chemical Formulas, Equations, and Reaction Yields 72 Ch 2: Introduction 72 2.1: Empirical and Molecular Formulas 73 2.2: Chemical Formula and Percentage Composition 74 2.3: Writing Balanced Chemical Equations 76 2.4: Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions 80 2.5: Limiting Reactant and Percentage Yield 82 Ch 2: Chapter Summary 84 Ch 2: Concepts and Skills 85 Ch 2: Cumulative Exercise 86 Ch 2: Problems 87 Ch 2: Additional Problems 89 Unit II: Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 91 Ch 3: Atomic Shells and Classical Models of Chemical Bonding 93 Ch 3: Introduction 93 3.1: Representations of Molecules 95 3.2: The Periodic Table 100 3.3: Forces and Potential Energy in Atoms 103 3.4: Ionization Energies, the Shell Model of the Atom, and Shielding 111 3.5: Electron Affinity 118 3.6: Electronegativity: The Tendency of Atoms to Attract Electrons in Molecules 120 3.7: Forces and Potential Energy in Molecules: Formation of Chemical Bonds 124 3.8: Ionic Bonding 126 3.9: Covalent and Polar Covalent Bonding 131 3.10: Electron Pair Bonds and Lewis Diagrams for Molecules 140 3.11: The Shapes of Molecules Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory 147 3.12: Oxidation Numbers 153 3.13: Inorganic Nomenclature 155 Ch 3: Chapter Summary 158 Ch 3: Concepts and Skills 159 Ch 3: Cumulative Exercise 163 Ch 3: Problems 164 Ch 3: Additional Problems 169 Ch 3: Cumulative Problems 171 Ch 4: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics 173 Ch 4: Introduction 173 4.1: Preliminaries: Wave Motion and Light 175 4.2: Evidence for Energy Quantization in Atoms 179 4.3: The Bohr Model: Predicting Discrete Energy Levels in Atoms 188 4.4: Evidence for Wave–Particle Duality 191 4.5: The Schrödinger Equation 203 4.6: Quantum Mechanics of Particle-in-a-Box Models 207 4.7: A Deeper Look: Wave Functions for Particles in Two- and Three-Dimensional Boxes 215 Ch 4: Chapter Summary 220 Ch 4: Concepts and Skills 221 Ch 4: Cumulative Exercise 225 Ch 4: Problems 226 Ch 4: Additional Problems 228 Ch 5: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Structure 230 Ch 5: Introduction 230 5.1: The Hydrogen Atom 231 5.2: Shell Model for Many-Electron Atoms 249 5.3: Aufbau Principle and Electron Configurations 254 5.4: Shells and the Periodic Table: Photoelectron Spectroscopy 259 5.5: Periodic Properties and Electronic Structure 262 Ch 5: Chapter Summary 267 Ch 5: Concepts and Skills 268 Ch 5: Cumulative Exercise 270 Ch 5: Problems 271 Ch 5: Additional Problems 274 Ch 6: Quantum Mechanics and Molecular Structure 276 Ch 6: Introduction 276 6.1: Quantum Picture of the Chemical Bond 278 6.2: Exact Molecular Orbitals for the Simplest Molecule: H2+ 282 6.3: Molecular Orbital Theory and the Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals Approximation for H2+ 288 6.4: Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules: First-Period Atoms 292 6.5: Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules: Second-Period Atoms 294 6.6: Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 303 6.7: Summary Comments for the LCAO Method and Diatomic Molecules 309 6.8: Valence Bond Theory and the Electron Pair Bond 310 6.9: Orbital Hybridization for Polyatomic Molecules 316 6.10: Predicting Molecular Structures and Shapes 323 6.11: Using the LCAO and Valence Bond Methods Together 327 6.12: Summary and Comparison of the LCAO and Valence Bond Methods 332 6.13: A Deeper Look: Properties of the Exact Molecular Orbitals for H2+ 335 Ch 6: Chapter Summary 341 Ch 6: Concepts and Skills 342 Ch 6: Cumulative Exercise 344 Ch 6: Problems 345 Ch 6: Additional Problems 348 Ch 7: Bonding in Organic Molecules 350 Ch 7: Introduction 350 7.1: Petroleum Refining and the Hydrocarbons 351 7.2: The Alkanes 352 7.3: The Alkenes and Alkynes 358 7.4: Aromatic Hydrocarbons 361 7.5: Fullerenes 364 7.6: Functional Groups and Organic Reactions 365 7.7: Pesticides and Pharmaceuticals 377 Ch 7: Chapter Summary 383 Ch 7: Concepts and Skills 384 Ch 7: Problems 386 Ch 7: Additional Problems 388 Ch 7: Cumulative Problems 389 Ch 8: Bonding in Transition Metal Compounds and Coordination Complexes 390 Ch 8: Introduction 390 8.1: Chemistry of the Transition Metals 391 8.2: Introduction to Coordination Chemistry 398 8.3: Structures of Coordination Complexes 404 8.4: Crystal Field Theory: Optical and Magnetic Properties 410 8.5: Optical Properties and the Spectrochemical Series 417 8.6: Bonding in Coordination Complexes 420 Ch 8: Chapter Summary 429 Ch 8: Concepts and Skills 430 Ch 8: Cumulative Exercise 431 Ch 8: Problems 432 Ch 8: Additional Problems 434 Ch 8: Cumulative Problems 436 Unit III: Kinetic Molecular Description of the States of Matter 437 Ch 9: The Gaseous State 439 Ch 9: Introduction 439 9.1: The Chemistry of Gases 440 9.2: Pressure and Temperature of Gases 442 9.3: The Ideal Gas Law 449 9.4: Mixtures of Gases 452 9.5: The Kinetic Theory of Gases 454 9.6: Real Gases: Intermolecular Forces 463 9.7: A Deeper Look: Molecular Collisions and Rate Processes 468 Ch 9: Chapter Summary 477 Ch 9: Concepts and Skills 478 Ch 9: Cumulative Exercise 481 Ch 9: Problems 482 Ch 9: Additional Problems 485 Ch 9: Cumulative Problems 488 Ch 10: Solids, Liquids, and Phase Transitions 489 Ch 10: Introduction 489 10.1: Bulk Properties of Gases, Liquids, and Solids: Molecular Interpretation 490 10.2: Intermolecular Forces: Origins in Molecular Structure 496 10.3: Intermolecular Forces in Liquids 501 10.4: Phase Equilibrium 505 10.5: Phase Transitions 507 10.6: Phase Diagrams 509 Ch 10: Chapter Summary 511 Ch 10: Concepts and Skills 512 Ch 10: Cumulative Exercise 514 Ch 10: Problems 515 Ch 10: Additional Problems 518 Ch 10: Cumulative Problems 519 Ch 11: Solutions 520 Ch 11: Introduction 520 11.1: Composition of Solutions 521 11.2: Nature of Dissolved Species 524 11.3: Reaction Stoichiometry in Solutions: Acid–Base Titrations 527 11.4: Reaction Stoichiometry in Solutions: Oxidation–Reduction Titrations 531 11.5: Phase Equilibrium in Solutions: Nonvolatile Solutes 538 11.6: Phase Equilibrium in Solutions: Volatile Solutes 546 11.7: Colloidal Suspensions 551 Ch 11: Chapter Summary 552 Ch 11: Concepts and Skills 553 Ch 11: Cumulative Exercise 556 Ch 11: Problems 557 Ch 11: Additional Problems 561 Ch 11: Cumulative Problems 562 Unit IV: Equilibrium in Chemical Reactions 563 Ch 12: Thermodynamic Processes and Thermochemistry 565 Ch 12: Introduction 565 12.1: Systems, States, and Processes 567 12.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics: Internal Energy, Work, and Heat 570 12.3: Heat Capacity, Calorimetry, and Enthalpy 577 12.4: The First Law and Ideal Gas Processes 580 12.5: Molecular Contributions to Internal Energy and Heat Capacity 583 12.6: Thermochemistry 589 12.7: Reversible Processes in Ideal Gases 597 12.8: A Deeper Look: Distribution of Energy among Molecules 602 Ch 12: Chapter Summary 606 Ch 12: Concepts and Skills 606 Ch 12: Cumulative Exercises 609 Ch 12: Problems 610 Ch 12: Additional Problems 615 Ch 12: Cumulative Problems 617 Ch 13: Spontaneous Processes and Thermodynamic Equilibrium 619 Ch 13: Introduction 619 13.1: The Nature of Spontaneous Processes 620 13.2: Entropy and Spontaneity: A Molecular Statistical Interpretation 623 13.3: Entropy and Heat: Macroscopic Basis of the Second Law of Thermodynamics 628 13.4: Entropy Changes in Reversible Processes 630 13.5: Entropy Changes and Spontaneity 634 13.6: The Third Law of Thermodynamics 637 13.7: The Gibbs Free Energy 640 13.8: A Deeper Look: Carnot Cycles, Efficiency, and Entropy 645 Ch 13: Chapter Summary 651 Ch 13: Concepts and Skills 651 Ch 13: Key Equations 654 Ch 13: Cumulative Exercise 654 Ch 13: Problems 655 Ch 13: Additional Problems 658 Ch 13: Cumulative Problems 661 Ch 14: Chemical Equilibrium 662 Ch 14: Introduction 662 14.1: The Nature of Chemical Equilibrium 663 14.2: The Empirical Law of Mass Action 667 14.3: Thermodynamic Description of the Equilibrium State 673 14.4: The Law of Mass Action for Related and Simultaneous Equilibria 680 14.5: Equilibrium Calculations for Gas-Phase and Heterogeneous Reactions 682 14.6: The Direction of Change in Chemical Reactions: Empirical Description 688 14.7: The Direction of Change in Chemical Reactions: Thermodynamic Explanation 697 14.8: Distribution of a Single Species Between Immiscible Phases: Extraction and Separation Processes 701 Ch 14: Chapter Summary 704 Ch 14: Concepts and Skills 705 Ch 14: Cumulative Exercise 708 Ch 14: Problems 710 Ch 14: Additional Problems 716 Ch 14: Cumulative Problems 718 Ch 15: Acid–Base Equilibria 720 Ch 15: Introduction 720 15.1: Classifications of Acids and Bases 721 15.2: Properties of Acids and Bases in Aqueous Solutions: The Brønsted–Lowry Scheme 728 15.3: Acid and Base Strength 731 15.4: Equilibria Involving Weak Acids and Bases 739 15.5: Buffer Solutions 744 15.6: Acid–Base Titration Curves 749 15.7: Polyprotic Acids 754 15.8: Organic Acids and Bases: Structure and Reactivity 758 15.9: A Deeper Look: Exact Treatment of Acid–Base Equilibria 764 Ch 15: Chapter Summary 769 Ch 15: Concepts and Skills 770 Ch 15: Cumulative Exercise 774 Ch 15: Problems 775 Ch 15: Additional Problems 780 Ch 15: Cumulative Problems 783 Ch 16: Solubility and Precipitation Equilibria 784 Ch 16: Introduction 784 16.1: The Nature of Solubility Equilibria 785 16.2: Ionic Equilibria between Solids and Solutions 788 16.3: Precipitation and the Solubility Product 791 16.4: The Effects of pH on Solubility 795 16.5: Complex Ions and Solubility 797 16.6: A Deeper Look: Selective Precipitation of Ions 802 Ch 16: Chapter Summary 805 Ch 16: Concepts and Skills 806 Ch 16: Cumulative Exercise 808 Ch 16: Problems 809 Ch 16: Additional Problems 812 Ch 16: Cumulative Problems 813 Ch 17: Electrochemistry 814 Ch 17: Introduction 814 17.1: Electrochemical Cells 815 17.2: Cell Potentials and the Gibbs Free Energy 821 17.3: Concentration Effects and the Nernst Equation 829 17.4: Molecular Electrochemistry 836 17.5: Batteries and Fuel Cells 849 17.6: Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention 857 17.7: Electrometallurgy 859 17.8: A Deeper Look: Electrolysis of Water and Aqueous Solutions 865 Ch 17: Chapter Summary 868 Ch 17: Concepts and Skills 868 Ch 17: Cumulative Exercise 871 Ch 17: Problems 872 Ch 17: Additional Problems 877 Ch 17: Cumulative Problems 879 Unit V: Rates of Chemical and Physical Processes 881 Ch 18: Chemical Kinetics 883 Ch 18: Introduction 883 18.1: Rates of Chemical Reactions 884 18.2: Rate Laws 887 18.3: Reaction Mechanisms 895 18.4: Reaction Mechanisms and Rate 898 18.5: Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rates 904 18.6: Molecular Theories of Elementary Reactions 909 18.7: Reactions in Solution 921 18.8: Catalysis 923 Ch 18: Chapter Summary 931 Ch 18: Concepts and Skills 932 Ch 18: Cumulative Exercise 934 Ch 18: Problems 935 Ch 18: Additional Problems 940 Ch 18: Cumulative Problems 943 Ch 19: Nuclear Chemistry 944 Ch 19: Introduction 944 19.1: Mass–Energy Relationships in Nuclei 945 19.2: Nuclear Decay Processes 949 19.3: Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 955 19.4: Radiation in Biology and Medicine 959 19.5: Nuclear Fission 964 19.6: Nuclear Fusion and Nucleosynthesis 969 Ch 19: Chapter Summary 972 Ch 19: Concepts and Skills 973 Ch 19: Cumulative Exercise 974 Ch 19: Problems 976 Ch 19: Additional Problems 978 Ch 19: Cumulative Problems 980 Ch 20: Molecular Spectroscopy and Photochemistry 982 Ch 20: Introduction 982 20.1: Introduction to Molecular Spectroscopy 983 20.2: Experimental Methods in Molecular Spectroscopy 987 20.3: Rotational and Vibrational Spectroscopy 993 20.4: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 1012 20.5: Electronic Spectroscopy and Excited State Relaxation Processes 1016 20.6: Introduction to Atmospheric Chemistry 1023 20.7: Photosynthesis 1032 20.8: A Deeper Look: Lasers 1038 Ch 20: Chapter Summary 1039 Ch 20: Concepts and Skills 1040 Ch 20: Cumulative Exercise 1044 Ch 20: Problems 1045 Ch 20: Additional Problems 1049 Ch 20: Cumulative Problems 1050 Unit VI: Materials 1051 Ch 21: Structure and Bonding in Solids 1053 Ch 21: Introduction 1053 21.1: Crystal Symmetry and the Unit Cell 1054 21.2: Crystal Structure 1060 21.3: Cohesion in Solids 1065 21.4: Defects and Amorphous Solids 1072 21.5: A Deeper Look: Lattice Energies of Crystals 1076 Ch 21: Chapter Summary 1079 Ch 21: Concepts and Skills 1080 Ch 21: Cumulative Exercise 1082 Ch 21: Problems 1083 Ch 21: Additional Problems 1085 Ch 21: Cumulative Problems 1087 Ch 22: Inorganic Materials 1088 Ch 22: Introduction 1088 22.1: Minerals: Naturally Occurring Inorganic Materials 1089 22.2: Properties of Ceramics 1094 22.3: Silicate Ceramics 1096 22.4: Nonsilicate Ceramics 1101 22.5: Electrical Conduction in Materials 1106 22.6: Band Theory of Conduction 1110 22.7: Semiconductors 1112 22.8: Pigments and Phosphors: Optical Displays 1115 Ch 22: Chapter Summary 1116 Ch 22: Concepts and Skills 1116 Ch 22: Problems 1119 Ch 22: Additional Problems 1122 Ch 23: Polymeric Materials and Soft Condensed Matter 1124 Ch 23: Introduction 1124 23.1: Polymerization Reactions for Synthetic Polymers 1125 23.2: Applications for Synthetic Polymers 1129 23.3: Liquid Crystals 1136 23.4: Natural Polymers 1139 Ch 23: Chapter Summary 1148 Ch 23: Concepts and Skills 1149 Ch 23: Problems 1151 Ch 23: Additional Problems 1152 Appendices 1154 Appendix A: Scientific Notation and Experimental Error 1155 Appendix B: SI Units, Unit Conversions, and Physics for General Chemistry 1163 Appendix C: Mathematics for General Chemistry 1178 Appendix D: Standard Chemical Thermodynamic Properties 1196 Appendix E: Standard Reduction Potentials at 25°C 1204 Appendix F: Physical Properties of the Elements 1206 Appendix G: Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems 1215 Index/Glossary 1232 ES6 1270 ES7 1271 WCN:,02-200-202 WCN: 02-200-202 "Long considered the standard for covering chemistry at a high level, PRINCIPLES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY continues to set the standard as the most modern, rigorous, and chemically and mathematically accurate book on the market. This authoritative text features an "atoms first" approach and thoroughly revised chapters on Quantum Mechanics and Molecular Structure (Chapter 6), Electrochemistry (Chapter 17), and Molecular Spectroscopy and Photochemistry (Chapter 20). In addition, the text utilizes mathematically accurate and artistic atomic and molecular orbital art, and is student friendly without compromising its rigor. End-of-chapter learning aids now focus on only the most important key objectives, equations and concepts, making it easier for readers to locate chapter content, while new applications to a wide range of disciplines, such as biology, chemical engineering, biochemistry, and medicine deepen readers' understanding of the relevance of chemistry in today's world. "--Publisher's description Covering chemistry at a high level, this text features an "atoms first" approach and includes chapters on Quantum Mechanics and Molecular Structure, Electrochemistry, and Molecular Spectroscopy and Photochemistry. It utilizes mathematically accurate and artistic atomic and molecular orbital art