Primary and Secondary Education During Covid-19 : Disruptions to Educational Opportunity During a Pandemic

This open access edited volume is a comparative effort to discern the short-term educational impact of the covid-19 pandemic on students, teachers and systems in Brazil, Chile, Finland, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Singapore, Spain, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States. One of the first academic comparative studies of the educational impact of the pandemic, the book explains how the interruption of in person instruction and the variable efficacy of alternative forms of education caused learning loss and disengagement with learning, especially for disadvantaged students. Other direct and indirect impacts of the pandemic diminished the ability of families to support children and youth in their education. For students, as well as for teachers and school staff, these included the economic shocks experienced by families, in some cases leading to food insecurity and in many more causing stress and anxiety and impacting mental health. Opportunity to learn was also diminished by the shocks and trauma experienced by those with a close relative infected by the virus, and by the constrains on learning resulting from students having to learn at home, where the demands of schoolwork had to be negotiated with other family necessities, often sharing limited space. Furthermore, the prolonged stress caused by the uncertainty over the resolution of the pandemic and resulting from the knowledge that anyone could be infected and potentially lose their lives, created a traumatic context for many that undermined the necessary focus and dedication to schoolwork. These individual effects were reinforced by community effects, particularly for students and teachers living in communities where the multifaceted negative impacts resulting from the pandemic were pervasive. This is an open access book. Primary and Secondary Education During Covid-19 Contents 1 Learning from a Pandemic. The Impact of COVID-19 on Education Around the World 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Goals and Significance of this Study 1.3 A Stylized Global Summary of the Facts 1.4 The Backdrop to the Pandemic: Enormous and Growing Inequality and Social Exclusion 1.5 The Pandemic and Health 1.6 The Pandemic, Poverty, and Inequality 1.7 Readiness for Remote Teaching During a Pandemic 1.8 What are the Short-term Educational Impacts of the Pandemic? 1.9 Methods References 2 Experiences with Risk-Management and Remote Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Brazil: Crises, Destitutions, and (Possible) Resolutions 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Education and Its Discontents with COVID-19 in Brazil: When the Wave of Uncertainty Hits the Hardest, Risk-Management Needs to Be in Place 2.3 The Loss of Instructional Time and the Sense of Urgency to Mitigate COVID-19 Shocks 2.4 New Means of Instruction and Curriculum Reprioritization in the COVID-19 Context 2.5 The Variance of Responses Against COVID-19 and the Waning of Learning and Participation 2.6 The Attempt to Gradually Reopen Schools to Avoid Further Losses: The Contentious Site of Education 2.7 Planting Seeds of Hope in Shaken Terrain: The Possibilities to Build a Future After a Traumatic Event Appendix References 3 The Fragility of the School-in-Pandemic in Chile 3.1 Education in Chile: Basic Context 3.2 Policies Adopted to Confront the Pandemic in Education 3.3 Effects of the Pandemic on the Educational Process and the Responses of Actors 3.4 The Fragility of the Experience of Schooling at Home 3.5 Final Reflections: Looking to the Post-pandemic School Appendix 1 References 4 Experiences of Moving Quickly to Distance Teaching and Learning at All Levels of Education in Finland 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Finnish Education Context 4.3 Preconditions for Distance Teaching and Learning During the Pandemic 4.4 Organisation of Teaching and Learning During the Pandemic 4.5 School-Level Teaching and Learning Experiences During the Pandemic 4.6 Teacher, Principal and Student Well-Being During the Pandemic 4.7 Discussion References 5 Covid-19 and Education on the Front Lines in Japan: What Caused Learning Disparities and How Did the Government and Schools Take Initiative? 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The COVID-19 Pandemic and Japan’s Response 5.3 Home-Based Learning During the School Closure and MEXT’s Policy Initiatives 5.3.1 Background: Japan’s Education System 5.3.2 Disparity in Home-Based Learning During School Closure by School Type 5.3.3 Disparity in Home-Based Learning During School Closure by Prefecture 5.3.4 The GIGA School Initiative as the Policy Solution 5.3.5 MEXT’s Additional Supportive Policy Measures 5.4 Threat to Learning Opportunities and Room for Optimism Amidst the Pandemic 5.4.1 Deprivation of Learning Opportunities from Children in Single-Parent Households 5.4.2 Ray of Hope for Education Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic 5.5 Conclusion: Implications for Future Education and Policy Appendix A: List of Questions from the Survey by the Cabinet Office Appendix B: Overview of MEXT’s Policy Initiatives References 6 COVID-19 and Post-pandemic Educational Policies in Mexico. What is at Stake? 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Conditions Before the Pandemic 6.3 National and Local Government Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic 6.3.1 Main Strategies 6.3.2 Technological Platforms 6.3.3 Local Government Responses 6.4 What Do We Know About the Effects of the Pandemic in Mexico? 6.5 What Do We Know About Potential Interventions? 6.5.1 Policy Options 6.6 Final Comments References 7 Homeschooling in Norway During the Pandemic-Digital Learning with Unequal Access to Qualified Help at Home and Unequal Learning Opportunities Provided by the School 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The Norwegian Context 7.3 Pandemic Pedagogy: Digitally Mediated Learning 7.4 Parents’ Survey on Homeschooling 7.5 Analyses and Results 7.6 Discussion 7.7 Conclusion References 8 The Portuguese Educational Policy to Ensure Equity in Learning in Times of Crises 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The Portuguese Education Context 8.3 Policy Measures to Face the COVID-19 Pandemic 8.4 Methodological Approach 8.5 Enactment of Policies and Teachers’ Perceptions 8.6 Conclusions References 9 General Education in Russia During COVID-19: Readiness, Policy Response, and Lessons Learned 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Methodology, Data, and Limitations 9.3 The Russian Education System in the Face of the COVID-19 Coronavirus Pandemic 9.4 Education Policy at Different Levels During the COVID-19 Pandemic: General Trends 9.5 Consequences and Lessons of the Coronavirus Pandemic 9.6 Discussion and Conclusions Appendix 9.1 Appendix 9.2 Appendix 9.3 Appendix 9.4 Appendix 9.5 References 10 Science, Social Responsibility, and Education: The Experience of Singapore During the COVID-19 Pandemic 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Unfolding of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Singapore 10.3 Operating on Science and Government-Wide Approach 10.4 Emphasizing Social Responsibility 10.5 Minimizing the Loss of Learning and Seizing Opportunities for Teachable Moments 10.6 Use of Technology: Student Learning Space 10.7 Professional Development and the Co-Sharing Teacher Community 10.8 Challenges of Learning for Vulnerable Groups 10.9 Lessons Learned and Future Implications 10.9.1 Curriculum 10.9.2 Pedagogy 10.9.3 Structure 10.10 Conclusion and Remarks References 11 The Spanish Response to the Covid-19 Pandemic: From Joint Governance to Lack of Governance 11.1 Introduction Organization, Structure, and Legal Framework of the Spanish Education System 11.2 The Current Educational System in Spain 11.3 The Response to the Pandemic and the Impacts on Education 11.4 Conclusions References 12 The Impact of COVID-19 on a Fragile Education System: The Case of South Africa 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The Beginning of the Pandemic 12.3 Outlining the Fragility of the South African Educational System 12.4 Government’s Response to COVID-19 12.5 Education in 2020 and 2021: The Impact of COVID-19 12.6 Time Away from Schools and Classrooms: Deepening and Widening Inequalities 12.7 Development of the Individual Learner 12.8 Conclusion References 13 COVID-19 and U.S. Schools: Using Data to Understand and Mitigate Inequities in Instruction and Learning 13.1 Introduction 13.2 The U.S. Public Education Context and Policy Response to COVID-19 13.2.1 Educational Context in the Early Phases of the Pandemic 13.2.2 Policies for Remote Learning 13.3 Impact of COVID-19 on Instruction and Learning in U.S. K-12 Schools 13.3.1 Opportunities to Learn During Widespread School Closures 13.3.2 Likely Short-Term Effects of the Pandemic on Student Outcomes 13.3.3 Potential Longer-Term Effects on Student Learning and Well-Being 13.4 Advancing Measurement and Data Systems to Promote Equitable Opportunities in the Wake of the Pandemic 13.4.1 Monitoring Opportunity to Learn 13.4.2 Monitoring Learning Outcomes to Inform Policy and Practice 13.4.3 Monitoring Social and Emotional Learning 13.5 Conclusion References 14 Ambitious and Sustainable Post-pandemic Workplace Design for Teachers: A Portrait of the Arizona Teacher Workforce 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Portrait of the Pre-pandemic Teacher Workforce 14.1.2 Escalating Expectations for Teachers: Pre-pandemic 14.1.3 Escalating and Intensifying Professional Demands During the COVID-19 Pandemic 14.1.4 Compounding Factors: Personal, Structural, and Social Considerations 14.1.5 Arizona Context 14.1.6 Arizona COVID-19 Policy Timeline and Guidance 14.2 Findings 14.3 Conclusion References 15 Education in the Time of COVID-19 in France, Ireland, the United Kingdom and the United States: the Nature and Impact of Remote Learning 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Aspects of Schooling During Lockdowns 15.2.1 School Building Closures Meant that Most, but not All Students, Changed the Location and Form of Their Schooling 15.2.2 Instruction and Instructional Materials Were Mainly Online or Paper-Based, Although Classes Were Sometimes Cancelled 15.2.3 Access to Digital Devices and Networks Was Limited for a Sizeable Minority of the Population 15.2.4 Teachers May Have Lowered Their Ambitions Regarding the Content of Instruction 15.3 Learning Time During School Closures 15.3.1 Around 10 to 20% of Students May Have Stopped Their School Learning Activities 15.3.2 Students Spent About Half Their Normal “in-Person” Time on School-Related Learning Activities 15.3.3 Time on Schoolwork Shows no Strong Relationships with Parental Education or Household Income 15.4 Parental and Family Involvement 15.4.1 Younger Children Received More Assistance from Parents 15.4.2 Around Half or Less of Parents Felt Capable to Assist with Their children’s Remote Education 15.5 Home Learning: The Positives and Negatives 15.5.1 Parents Had Mixed Views: They Were Appreciative of Schools’ Efforts, but Very Concerned About Their children’s Learning 15.5.2 The Performance of Students on Standardised Tests Compared with that of Their Peers in Previous years 15.6 Summary and Conclusion 15.6.1 The Overall Picture 15.6.2 The Equity Picture 15.6.3 In Summary 15.6.4 Looking Ahead Appendix A Appendix B References 16 The Unequal Impacts of COVID-19 on Student Learning 16.1 Introduction 16.2 A Learning Crisis Characterized by Huge Disparities Between and Within Countries and Classrooms 16.3 Why is Learning Unequal and How Might COVID-19 Magnify Such Inequality? 16.3.1 The Technology of Skills Formation 16.3.2 COVID-19, Student Learning and Learning Inequality 16.4 What the Data Shows: How Can COVID-19 Impact Learning Inequality? 16.4.1 How Unequal Have the COVID-19 School Closures Been? 16.4.2 How Might the Current Ability of Governments to Respond to the Pandemic Affect Its Impact on Learning Inequality? 16.4.3 How Are Families’ and Household’s Pre-COVID Inequalities and Post-COVID Behavior Likely to Magnify the Learning Crisis? 16.5 Education Policies to Mitigate and Remediate Learning Losses 16.5.1 Compensatory Measures to Increase Reenrollment 16.5.2 Compensatory Measures to Catch up Lost Learning 16.6 Concluding Remarks Annex I—Complementary Figures Annex II—Description of Data Sources References 17 Conclusions and Implications 17.1 The Educational Consequences of COVID-19 Differed by Country and Class 17.2 Educational Opportunity Before the Pandemic, During the Pandemic, and Beyond 17.3 The Role of Initial Conditions Mediating the Educational Impact of the Pandemic 17.4 The Silver Linings 17.5 The Challenges Ahead Reference