Present knowledge in food safety : ǂa ǂrisk-based approach through the food chain

Cover Present Knowledge in Food Safety Copyright Dedication Contents List of contributors About the editors Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Section I Changes in the chemical composition of food through the various stages of the food chain: plants before harvest 1 Natural toxicants in plant-based foods, including herbs and spices and herbal food supplements, and accompanying risks 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Risk and safety assessment of natural toxins from plants 1.3 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Improper food handling [toxic proteins, glycoalkaloids (... 1.3.1 Toxic proteins 1.3.1.1 Toxic proteins: relevant structural features 1.3.1.2 Toxic proteins: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.3.1.3 Toxic proteins: risk assessment 1.3.2 Glycoalkaloids 1.3.2.1 Glycoalkaloids: relevant structural features 1.3.2.2 Glycoalkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.3.2.3 Glycoalkaloids: risk assessment 1.3.3 Quinolizidine alkaloids 1.3.3.1 Quinolizidine alkaloids: relevant structural features 1.3.3.2 Quinolizidine alkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.3.3.3 Quinolizidine alkaloids: risk assessment 1.4 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Famine food (cyanogenic glycosides, lathyrogens) 1.4.1 Cyanogenic glycosides 1.4.1.1 Cyanogenic glycosides: relevant structural features 1.4.1.2 Cyanogenic glycosides: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.4.1.3 Cyanogenic glycosides: risk assessment 1.4.2 Lathyrogens 1.4.2.1 Lathyrogens: relevant structural features 1.4.2.2 Lathyrogens: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.4.2.3 Lathyrogens: risk assessment 1.5 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Sensitive individuals (allergens, fava glucosides, and FCs) 1.5.1 Allergens 1.5.2 Fava pyrimidine glycosides 1.5.2.1 Fava pyrimidine glycosides: relevant structural features 1.5.2.2 Fava pyrimidine glycosides: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.5.2.3 Fava pyrimidine glycosides: risk assessment 1.5.3 Furocoumarins 1.5.3.1 Furocoumarins: relevant structural features 1.5.3.2 Furocoumarins: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.5.3.3 Furocoumarins: risk assessment 1.6 Situations where “normal” dietary intake of natural toxins from plant-based foods may raise concern 1.6.1 Glucosinolates 1.6.1.1 Glucosinolates: relevant structural features 1.6.1.2 Glucosinolates: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.6.1.3 Glucosinolates: risk assessment 1.6.2 Alkenylbenzenes including allylalkoxybenzenes and 1-propenylalkoxybenzenes 1.6.2.1 Alkenylbenzenes: structural features 1.6.2.2 Alkenylbenzenes: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.6.2.3 Alkenylbenzenes: risk assessment 1.6.3 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids 1.6.3.1 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids: structural features 1.6.3.2 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.6.3.3 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids: risk assessment 1.7 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Switching varieties [grayanotoxins (GTXs), anisatin, and... 1.7.1 Grayanotoxins 1.7.1.1 Grayanotoxins: structural features 1.7.1.2 Grayanotoxins: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.7.1.3 Grayanotoxins: risk assessment 1.7.2 Anisatin 1.7.2.1 Anisatin: structural features 1.7.2.2 Anisatin: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.7.2.3 Anisatin: risk assessment 1.7.3 Aristolochic acids 1.7.3.1 Aristolochic acids: structural features 1.7.3.2 Aristolochic acids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.7.3.3 Aristolochic acids: risk assessment 1.8 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Abuse [tropane alkaloids (TAs), opium alkaloids, delta-9... 1.8.1 Tropane alkaloids 1.8.1.1 Tropane alkaloids: structural features 1.8.1.2 Tropane alkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.8.1.3 Tropane alkaloids: risk assessment 1.8.2 Opium alkaloids 1.8.2.1 Opium alkaloids: structural features 1.8.2.2 Opium alkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.8.2.3 Opium alkaloids: risk assessment 1.8.3 Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol 1.8.3.1 Tetrahydrocannabinol: structural features 1.8.3.2 Tetrahydrocannabinol: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.8.3.3 Tetrahydrocannabinol: risk assessment 1.9 Adulteration with pharmaceutical substances 1.10 Discussion including existing data gaps and research directions References 2 Soil, water, and air: potential contributions of inorganic and organic chemicals 2.1 General introduction 2.2 Heavy metals 2.2.1 Introduction 2.2.2 Sources of heavy metal contamination 2.2.2.1 Air 2.2.2.2 Water 2.2.2.3 Soil 2.2.3 Incidence 2.2.3.1 Air 2.2.3.2 Water 2.2.3.3 Soil 2.2.4 Remediation and preventive measures 2.3 Pesticides 2.3.1 Introduction 2.3.2 Sources of contamination 2.3.2.1 Air 2.3.2.2 Water 2.3.2.3 Soil 2.3.3 Incidence 2.3.3.1 Air 2.3.3.2 Water 2.3.3.3 Soil 2.3.4 Remediation and preventive measures 2.4 Antimicrobials 2.4.1 Introduction 2.4.2 Sources of contamination 2.4.2.1 Air 2.4.2.2 Water 2.4.2.3 Soil 2.4.3 Incidence 2.4.4 Remediation and preventive measures 2.5 Plastics 2.5.1 Introduction 2.5.2 Sources of contamination 2.5.2.1 Air 2.5.2.2 Water 2.5.2.3 Soil 2.5.3 Incidence 2.5.3.1 Air 2.5.3.2 Water 2.5.3.3 Soil 2.5.4 Remediation and preventive measures 2.6 Other industrial chemicals 2.6.1 Introduction 2.6.2 Sources of contamination 2.6.2.1 Air 2.6.2.2 Water 2.6.2.3 Soil 2.6.3 Incidence 2.6.3.1 Air 2.6.3.2 Water 2.6.3.3 Soil 2.6.4 Remediation and preventive measures 2.7 Uptake of environmental pollutants from air, water, and soil to plant foods 2.8 Human health risk assessment 2.8.1 Introduction 2.8.2 Individual or group health assessments 2.8.2.1 Individual 2.8.2.2 Group 2.8.3 Health risk assessment 2.8.3.1 Acute exposure 2.8.3.2 Long-term exposure References 3 Agrochemicals in the Food Chain 3.1 Introduction 3.2 In vivo metabolism of agrochemicals 3.3 Regulation of agrochemicals 3.4 Agrochemicals commonly found as residues in foodstuffs 3.5 Types of agrochemicals and modes of action 3.5.1 Cleaning/disinfecting agents 3.5.2 Pesticides 3.5.2.1 Neurotoxins 3.5.2.1.1 GABA-gated chloride channel antagonists 3.5.2.1.2 Chloride channel activators 3.5.2.1.3 Sodium channel modulators 3.5.2.1.4 Voltage-dependent sodium channel blockers 3.5.2.1.5 Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors 3.5.2.1.6 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists 3.5.2.1.7 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor channel blockers 3.5.2.1.8 Octopamine receptor agonists 3.5.2.1.9 Ryanodine receptor modulators 3.5.2.1.10 Selective feeding blockers—Kir channel inhibition 3.5.2.2 Energy metabolism modulators 3.5.2.2.1 Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation 3.5.2.2.2 Mitochondrial complex electron transport inhibitors 3.5.2.3 Insect growth dysregulation 3.5.2.4 Fungicides 3.5.2.4.1 Inhibitors of lipid/steroid/sterol synthesis 3.5.2.4.2 Inhibitors of methionine synthesis 3.5.2.4.3 Multisite action 3.5.2.5 Herbicides 3.5.2.5.1 Cell walls/growth regulation 3.5.2.5.2 Ripening 3.5.2.5.3 Dysregulation of plant metabolism 3.6 Potential points of concern for agrochemical residues in the food chain 3.6.1 The “cocktail effect” 3.6.2 Endocrine disruption 3.6.3 Effects on the microbiome 3.7 Conclusions and potential areas for further study References 4 Mycotoxins: still with us after all these years 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Compounds of minor public health significance 4.3 Toxins from Fusarium graminearum and related species 4.3.1 Toxins 4.3.2 Management 4.4 Toxins from Fusarium verticillioides and related species 4.4.1 Toxins 4.4.2 Management 4.5 Toxins from Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, and related species 4.5.1 Management 4.5.2 Toxins 4.6 Ochratoxin-producing Penicillium and Aspergillus species 4.6.1 Management 4.6.2 Toxins 4.7 Key issues for the next decade References Section II Changes in the chemical composition of food throughout the various stages of the food chain: animal and milk production 5 Occurrence of antibacterial substances and coccidiostats in animal feed Chapter points 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Antibacterial drugs in feed 5.2.1 Antimicrobials in feed 5.2.2 Coccidiostats in feed 5.3 Medicated feed production 5.3.1 Cross-contamination during feed production, transport, and storage 5.3.2 Toxicity to nontarget animal species 5.4 Antimicrobial residues in food derived from animals 5.5 Antimicrobial resistance 5.6 Antimicrobial drugs: impact on the environment 5.7 Analytical methodology 5.8 Research gaps and future directions References 6 Residues relating to the veterinary therapeutic or growth-promoting use and abuse of medicines 6.1 Introduction, general terms, and significance of the topic 6.2 Authorization process and legal uses of veterinary medicines 6.2.1 Types of medicines used in veterinary practice 6.2.2 Types of directorates/authorities 6.2.3 Authorization of the veterinary medicines and feed additives at national and international level 6.2.4 Proper handling and uses, according to label versus off-label use, cascade concept 6.3 Preventing drug residues in food with animal origin 6.3.1 Control of drug residues in foodstuffs, maximum residue limits concept 6.3.2 Determination of withdrawal period after administration of medicines 6.3.3 Responsibilities of authorities, veterinary practitioners, and farmers in prevention of formation of drug residues in... 6.4 Reasons for the drug residues in food of animal origin 6.5 Conclusions and further perspectives Endnotes References Further reading Section III Changes in the chemical composition of food throughout the various stages of the food chain: fishing and aquaculture 7 Marine biotoxins as natural contaminants in seafood: European perspective 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Paralytic shellfish poisoning 7.1.2 Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning 7.1.3 Azaspiracid shellfish poisoning 7.1.4 Amnesic shellfish poisoning 7.2 Analytical methods 7.3 Transition from biological to chemical methods 7.4 Emerging toxins: incidence and present challenges for their control 7.4.1 Cyclic imines 7.4.2 Palytoxins 7.4.3 Brevetoxins 7.4.4 Ciguatoxins 7.4.5 Tetrodotoxins 7.5 Future perspectives References 8 Pollutants, residues and other contaminants in foods obtained from marine and fresh water Chapter points 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Main text 8.2.1 Water systems 8.2.1.1 Freshwater (rivers, lakes, etc.) versus marine environments 8.2.1.2 Aquaculture and farmed fish versus wild fish 8.2.2 Risk assessment 8.2.3 Pollutants, residues, and contaminants 8.2.3.1 Veterinary medicines and pesticides 8.2.3.2 Benefits of using veterinary medicines in aquaculture 8.2.3.3 Concerns surrounding excessive-use of veterinary medicines 8.2.4 Persistent organic pollutants 8.2.4.1 The Stockholm Convention 8.2.4.2 Persistent organic pollutants in fish and seafood 8.2.5 Metal(oid)s in fish 8.2.6 Eutrophication 8.2.7 Microplastics and nanoplastics 8.2.7.1 Adsorption of pollutants 8.2.8 Foods produced 8.2.8.1 Fish, shellfish, and other animal species 8.2.8.2 Plant foods: seaweeds, algae, etc 8.2.9 Environmental considerations 8.2.9.1 Environmental risk assessment 8.2.10 Water-table contamination: arsenic in rice as a case study 8.2.11 Risk substitution 8.3 Research gaps and future direction 8.3.1 Risk-benefit analysis and personalized medicine 8.3.2 Risk assessment of mixtures 8.3.3 Microplastics and nanoplastics 8.3.4 Algae 8.3.5 Climate change and impact of flooding 8.3.6 Cross boundary management/considerations References 9 Antimicrobial drugs in aquaculture: use and abuse 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Importance of aquaculture globally to meet consumer demand for fish 9.1.2 European Union—the world’s biggest importer of aquaculture products 9.1.3 Strategies to reduce import dependence of aquaculture products in European Union: farming of new fish species 9.1.4 Disease a limiting factor for aquaculture necessitates the use of more and new drugs 9.1.5 General use of veterinary drugs 9.1.5.1 Global and aquaculture levels 9.2 Main text 9.2.1 Aquatic animal diseases 9.2.1.1 OIE database in aquatic animal diseases 9.2.1.2 Alien farmed fish species may result in new pathogens being introduced locally 9.2.2 Legislation governing use of veterinary chemicals in aquaculture in European Union, United States, and elsewhere 9.2.2.1 Concepts of acceptable daily intake, maximum residue limit and withdrawal time 9.2.2.2 Hazard analysis and critical control point approaches 9.2.2.3 Surveillance programs and national control systems 9.2.3 Public/consumer health issues 9.2.4 Analytical techniques to identify drug residues 9.3 Research gaps and future directions References Section IV Changes in the chemical composition of food throughout the various stages of the food chain: manufacture, packaging and distribution 10 Manufacturing and distribution: the role of good manufacturing practice 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Hazard analysis and critical control points and preventive controls 10.3 Preventive controls and recall plans 10.4 Potential sources of chemical hazards during manufacture and distribution* 10.5 Research gaps and future directions References 11 Global regulations for the use of food additives and processing aids Chapter Points 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 International scientific and advisory committees 11.1.1.1 Food and Agricultural Organization and the World Health Organization 11.1.1.2 Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives 11.1.1.3 JECFA general principles of food additive safety evaluation 11.1.1.4 International Programme on Chemical Safety 11.2 Regulations in different jurisdictions 11.3 Global regulation and safety assessment of food additives and processing aids 11.4 Food additive regulations 11.5 Processing aids regulations 11.6 Research gaps and future directions References 12 Direct addition of flavors, including taste and flavor modifiers 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Types of flavors 12.3 Levels of use and uses 12.4 Exposure assessment 12.4.1 Volume-based methods for exposure assessment 12.4.2 Use level–based methods for exposure assessment 12.5 Safety evaluation 12.5.1 Safety evaluation of individual flavor compounds 12.5.2 Safety evaluation of natural flavoring complexes 12.5.3 Safety evaluation of process flavors 12.5.4 Safety evaluation of smoke flavorings 12.6 Examples 12.6.1 Diacetyl: generally recognized as safe implies safe at proposed uses and use levels 12.6.2 Coumarin: carcinogenicity threshold, remarkable species differences, and differences in regulation between the Europ... 12.6.3 Alkenylbenzenes versus naturals containing them: different approach in European Union and United States 12.7 Discussion and conclusions 12.8 Future directions 12.8.1 Intake by children 12.8.2 Use of threshold of toxicological concern for unidentified constituents 12.8.2.1 Reanalysis of the threshold of toxicological concern of 0.15µg/person/day for compounds with a structural alert fo... 12.8.2.2 Exposure assessments 12.8.2.3 Extending the database of available studies for read-across Endnotes References 13 Production of contaminants during thermal processing in both industrial and home preparation of foods 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Potential heat toxic compounds 13.2.1 Acrylamide 13.2.2 Furan 13.3 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural 13.3.1 Heterocyclic amines 13.4 Future prospects Acknowlegdments Conflicts of interest References 14 Migration of packaging and labeling components and advances in analytical methodology supporting exposure assessment 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Types of food packaging and labeling 14.1.2 Types of food packaging materials and labels 14.1.2.1 Legislation 14.2 Migration sources (materials, adhesives, printing inks, varnishes, etc.) 14.2.1 Direct migration 14.2.1.1 Definition of migration and its mechanism 14.2.1.2 Migration analysis 14.2.1.2.1 Adhesives 14.2.1.2.2 Varnishes and lacquers 14.2.1.2.3 Wax 14.2.1.2.4 Printing inks 14.2.2 Set-off phenomena 14.3 Components 14.3.1 Intentionally added substances 14.3.2 Nonintentionally added substances 14.4 Analytical techniques 14.4.1 Volatile compounds 14.4.2 Nonvolatile compounds 14.4.3 Metals and nanoparticles 14.5 Research gaps and future directions References 15 Safety assessment of refillable and recycled plastics packaging for food use Part A Recycled plastics in food contact applications 15.1 History 15.2 Regulations–Authorization and approvals for recycled plastics and food contact applications 15.3 North America 15.3.1 United States 15.4 Safety criteria 15.4.1 US FDA guidance criteria 15.4.2 Canada/Mexico 15.5 Europe 15.6 South America 15.7 Central America 15.8 Asia-Pacific 15.9 Africa 15.10 Conclusion Part B Refillable plastic food contact materials 15.11 History and perspective of returnable refillable plastic food containers 15.12 Refillable plastic containers for consumer market 15.13 Shift away from refillable plastic 15.14 Safety and quality of refillable containers 15.15 Flavor carry-over and effects of repeated use on materials 15.16 Contaminants from misuse 15.17 Contamination rate 15.18 Food contact material regulations 15.19 Refillable food contact materials regulations 15.20 United States and Canada 15.21 European Union 15.22 MERCOSUR and South America 15.23 Code of practices 15.24 Microbial safety 15.25 Sniffer detection technology 15.26 Conclusions References 16 Preventing food fraud 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Overview of food fraud mitigation 16.3 Developing food fraud mitigation plans 16.4 Research gaps and future directions References Section V Changes in the chemical composition of food throughout the various stages of the food chain: identification of emerging chemical risks 17 Emerging contaminants 17.1 Editorial introduction to Chapters 18–24 Disclaimer 18 Emerging contaminants related to plastic and microplastic pollution 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Food safety risks of microplastic pollution 18.3 Effects of microplastic ingestion on humans and living organisms 18.4 Effects of persistent, bioaccumulative compounds associated with microplastics on humans and living organisms 18.5 Effects of pathogenic microbes carried by microplastics on humans and living organisms 18.6 Research gaps and future directions Appendix A Appendix B References Further reading 19 Endocrine disruptors 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Mechanism of action and impact of endocrine disruptors on humane health 19.3 Current approaches for testing and assessment of chemicals for their endocrine activity and consequent adverse effects 19.4 Regulation of endocrine disrupting chemicals risk vs hazard based approach dilemma in assessment of endocrine-disrupti... 19.5 Advances in analytical methodology for detection and quantification of endocrine-disrupting chemical in food 19.5.1 Advances in instrumentation 19.5.2 Sample preparation 19.6 Endocrine disruptors in food 19.6.1 Dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) 19.6.2 Polybrominated diphenyl ethers 19.6.3 Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid 19.6.4 Hormonal active growth promoters used in veterinary 19.6.5 Pesticides 19.6.6 Bisphenol A 19.6.7 Phtalates 19.6.8 Phytoestrogens 19.6.9 Zearalenone 19.6.10 Cadmium 19.7 Research gaps and future directions of research in the field of EDC 19.8 Conclusions References 20 Antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial residues in the food chain 20.1 Introduction 20.2 The lifecycle of antimicrobials in food production 20.3 Antimicrobial residues in foods 20.4 Antimicrobial resistance along the food chain 20.5 Mitigation of antimicrobial resistance risks in food Disclaimer References 21 Climate change as a driving factor for emerging contaminants 21.1 Introduction 21.1.1 Climate change increases the risk of exposure to foodborne contaminants 21.1.1.1 Foodborne pathogens and parasites 21.1.1.2 Algal blooms 21.1.1.3 Heavy metals 21.1.1.4 Mycotoxins 21.2 Conclusion Disclaimer Endnotes References 22 Emerging mycotoxin risks due to climate change. What to expect in the coming decade? 22.1 Important mycotoxins in food 22.2 Factors affecting the production of mycotoxins 22.3 Predicted climate changes and their potential effects on future mycotoxins contamination 22.4 Current analytical techniques and future analytic challenges 22.5 Emerging mycotoxins threats under climate change conditions 22.6 Research gaps and future directions References 23 Emerging contaminants in the context of food fraud 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Veterinary drugs residues in food 23.3 Food adulteration with extraneous additives 23.4 Illegally produced or counterfeit alcohol 23.5 Definitions and databases 23.6 Early warning systems 23.7 Research gaps and future directions Disclaimer References 24 Trends in risk assessment of chemical contaminants in food 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Fundamentals of chemical risk assessment: concepts, principles, methods 24.2.1 Hazard identification 24.2.2 Hazard characterization 24.2.2.1 Benchmark dose modeling 24.2.2. 2 Approach to identifying the genotoxic and carcinogenic potential of chemicals 24.2.2.3 Practical approaches to mixture risk assessment 24.2.3 Exposure assessment 24.2.3.1 Threshold of Toxicological Concern 24.2.3.2 Margin-of-Exposure 24.2.4 Risk characterization 24.3 Risk perception in food safety risk assessment 24.4 Research gaps and future directions Disclaimer References Section VI Changes in pathogenic microbiological contamination of food pre- and post-farm gate/fishing 25 Common and natural occurrence of pathogens, including fungi, leading to primary and secondary product contamination 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Foodborne pathogenic bacteria 25.2.1 Staphylococcus aureus 25.2.2 Clostridium 25.2.2.1 Clostridium botulinum 25.2.2.2 Clostridium perfringens 25.2.3 Bacillus cereus 25.2.4 Listeria monocytogenes 25.2.5 Escherichia coli 25.2.6 Salmonella 25.2.7 Campylobacter 25.2.8 Shigella 25.2.9 Yersinia 25.2.10 Brucella 25.2.11 Cronobacter 25.3 Toxigenic fungi 25.3.1 Aspergillus 25.3.1.1 Aspergillus section Flavi 25.3.1.2 Aspergillus section Circumdati 25.3.1.3 Aspergillus section Nigri 25.3.2 Penicillium 25.3.3 Fusarium 25.3.3.1 Fusarium species producing fumonisins 25.3.3.2 Fusarium species producing deoxynivalenol 25.3.3.3 Fusarium species producing zearalenone 25.4 Routes of contamination 25.4.1 Feces and manure 25.4.1.1 Compost 25.4.2 Seeds 25.4.3 Soil 25.4.4 Dust 25.4.5 Insects and wildlife 25.4.6 Food handlers 25.4.7 Facilities, equipment, and utensils 25.4.8 Drying and storage 25.5 Research gaps and future directions References 26 Contributions of pathogens from agricultural water to fresh produce 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Agricultural water’s role in produce safety 26.2.1 Outbreaks linked to agricultural water 26.2.2 Microbial water quality standards 26.2.3 Quantitative microbial risk assessment 26.3 Foodborne pathogens and microbial indicators in agricultural waters 26.3.1 Prevalence of foodborne pathogens in agricultural waters 26.3.1.1 Bacterial pathogen prevalence 26.3.1.2 Virus prevalence 26.3.1.3 Parasitic pathogen prevalence 26.3.2 Regional differences on the presence of foodborne pathogens 26.3.3 Environmental impacts on the presence of foodborne pathogens 26.3.3.1 Seasonal differences 26.3.3.2 Temporal variations 26.3.3.3 Spatial variations 26.4 Fate of foodborne pathogens in agricultural waters 26.4.1 Foodborne pathogens survival in water 26.4.1.1 Temperature 26.4.1.2 Sunlight (UV radiation) 26.4.1.3 Nutrients 26.4.1.4 pH 26.4.1.5 Water source 26.4.1.6 Environmental reservoirs—bottom sediments and bank soils 26.4.1.7 Aquatic biota 26.4.2 Foodborne pathogen survival in water distribution systems 26.4.2.1 Biofilms 26.4.2.2 Effect of biofilms in pipe-based irrigation systems 26.4.3 Foodborne pathogen fate during and after application to produce crops 26.5 Agricultural water management and mitigations 26.5.1 Management and testing 26.5.2 Control and water treatment 26.5.3 Corrective actions and measures (before and after using water) 26.6 Conclusions/future needs References 27 Microbial pathogen contamination of animal feed Chapter points 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Animal feed and microbial contamination—general concepts 27.3 Potential sources of microbial contamination in feed manufacturing 27.3.1 Feed manufacturing steps as a source of cross-contamination 27.3.2 Rendering 27.3.3 Animal versus plant-derived bacterial contamination in feeds 27.4 Microbial pathogen contamination of feeds—general concepts 27.4.1 Salmonella 27.4.2 Campylobacter 27.4.3 Listeria monocytogenes 27.5 Pathogenic Escherichia coli 27.5.1 Clostridia 27.6 Fungi 27.7 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in feed 27.8 Conclusions and future directions References 28 Zoonoses from animal meat and milk Chapter points 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Factors impacting increase in zoonotic incidences worldwide 28.2.1 Population expansion, urbanization, and international trade 28.2.2 Plant-based to animal-based and small-scale to industrialized food production practices 28.2.3 Blurring of the animal–human–environment interface 28.2.3.1 Human-mediated factors impacting the emergence and spread of zoonoses 28.2.3.2 Climate change 28.3 Common foodborne zoonotic agents 28.3.1 Bacteria 28.3.1.1 Bacillus anthracis 28.3.1.2 Brucella spp 28.3.1.3 Campylobacter spp 28.3.1.4 Clostridium spp 28.3.1.5 Pathogenic Escherichia coli group 28.3.1.6 Listeria spp 28.3.1.7 Mycobacterium spp 28.3.1.8 Salmonella spp 28.3.1.9 Staphylococcus spp 28.3.1.10 Yersinia spp 28.3.2 Viruses 28.3.2.1 Hepevirus 28.3.3 Parasites 28.3.3.1 Cryptosporidium parvum 28.3.3.2 Sarcocystis spp 28.3.3.3 Taenia spp 28.3.3.4 Toxoplasma gondii 28.3.3.5 Trichinella spiralis 28.4 Research gaps and future directions 28.4.1 Consumer awareness and education 28.4.2 Detection methods—scope for improvement Endnotes References 29 Abattoir hygiene 29.1 Introduction 29.1.1 The role of abattoirs—past and current status 29.2 Veterinary public health 29.2.1 Prevention and control of zoonoses and other meat-borne diseases 29.2.2 Antemortem and postmortem meat inspection 29.3 Prerequisite programs for abattoirs 29.3.1 Layout 29.3.2 Equipment 29.3.3 Ventilation 29.3.4 Veterinary-sanitary requirements 29.4 Animal welfare in abattoir hygiene context 29.4.1 Transport of animals from farm/livestock market to abattoir 29.4.2 Lairage 29.4.3 Stunning 29.5 Slaughter and dressing in abattoir hygiene context 29.5.1 Stunning, sticking, and bleeding of slaughter animals 29.5.2 Dehiding of cattle and small ruminants 29.5.2.1 Legs 29.5.2.2 Head 29.5.3 Scalding, dehairing, singeing, and polishing of pigs 29.5.4 Evisceration 29.5.4.1 Cattle 29.5.4.2 Small ruminants 29.5.4.3 Pigs 29.5.5 Splitting, washing, and dressing of carcasses 29.5.5.1 Cattle 29.5.5.2 Sheep 29.5.5.3 Pigs 29.5.5.4 Carcass dressing 29.5.5.5 Carcass washing 29.5.6 Chilling procedures (carcasses and offal) 29.5.7 Animal by-product utilization 29.5.8 Wastewater management 29.6 Food safety management system in the context of abattoir hygiene 29.6.1 Nonintervention hazard analysis and critical control point 29.6.2 Intervention hazard analysis and critical control point 29.7 Discussions and future directions 29.7.1 Farm-to-chilled carcass approach 29.7.2 Automation and robotics in abattoir 29.7.3 Future perspectives—looking ahead References 30 Dairy production: microbial safety of raw milk and processed milk products 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Dairy value chain 30.3 Microbiology of raw milk 30.3.1 Pathogenic organisms 30.3.2 Spoilage organisms 30.4 Dairy processing and safety of processed products 30.4.1 Thermal processing and quality of fresh milk products 30.4.1.1 Pasteurized milk 30.4.1.2 Ultra-high temperature (UHT) processed milk 30.4.1.3 Extended shelf life (ESL) milk 30.4.2 Quality of fermented dairy products 30.4.2.1 Microbial quality of cheese 30.5 Hygiene in dairy processing 30.5.1 Sources of contamination in dairy processing 30.5.1.1 Bioaerosols 30.5.1.2 Contaminated water 30.5.1.3 Personnel hygiene 30.5.1.4 Biofilms 30.5.1.5 Sanitization and cleaning in place (CIP) 30.5.1.6 Packaging material 30.6 Risk-based preventative approach to dairy food safety 30.6.1 Microbiological risk assessment and role in dairy food safety 30.6.2 HACCP –based food safety systems 30.7 Gaps and future directions References 31 Reduction of risks associated with processed meats Chapter points 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Antimicrobials in processed meat formulations 31.2.1 Nitrate and nitrite 31.2.2 Acids and sodium salts of acids 31.2.3 Plant extracts and essential oils 31.2.4 Bacteriocins and bacteriocin-producing organisms 31.2.5 Bacteriophage 31.2.6 Novel antimicrobial strategies 31.3 Nonthermal processing technologies to reduce risks 31.3.1 High hydrostatic pressure processing 31.3.2 Atmospheric cold plasma 31.3.3 Ultraviolet-C radiation 31.3.4 Other nonthermal processing technologies to improve the safety of processed meats 31.4 Research gaps and future directions References 32 Pathogens and their sources in freshwater fish, sea finfish, shellfish, and algae 32.1 Introduction 32.2 Microbial hazards associated with fish 32.2.1 Vibrio 32.2.2 Salmonella 32.2.3 Aeromonas 32.2.4 Listeria 32.2.5 Clostridium 32.2.6 Viruses 32.3 Algae 32.4 Source of fish microbial contamination 32.4.1 Preharvest (prefarm gate) 32.4.1.1 Cropping systems 32.4.1.2 Livestock systems 32.4.1.3 Human settlements 32.4.1.4 Industries 32.4.2 Postharvest (postfarm gate) 32.5 Fish, antibiotic resistance, and other public health concerns 32.6 New trends in the detection of microbial hazards 32.6.1 Detection methods 32.6.1.1 PCR based methods 32.6.1.2 Traditional PCR 32.6.1.3 Real-time PCR 32.6.1.4 High-resolution melting 32.6.1.5 Multiplex PCR 32.6.1.6 Next-generation sequencing 32.6.2 Monitoring of microbial safety 32.7 Speculation on future challenges 32.7.1 Climate change and pathogens References 33 The evolution of molecular methods to study seafood-associated pathogens 33.1 Introduction 33.2 Naturally occurring microbial risks 33.3 Pathogenic vibrios 33.4 Human-introduced pathogens 33.5 The evolution of methods—norovirus and hepatitis A virus 33.6 Evolution of approaches—pathogenic vibrios 33.7 Understanding past outbreaks 33.8 Future direction Cover Present Knowledge in Food Safety Copyright Dedication Contents List of contributors About the editors Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Section I Changes in the chemical composition of food through the various stages of the food chain: plants before harvest 1 Natural toxicants in plant-based foods, including herbs and spices and herbal food supplements, and accompanying risks 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Risk and safety assessment of natural toxins from plants 1.3 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Improper food handling [toxic proteins, glycoalkaloids (... 1.3.1 Toxic proteins 1.3.1.1 Toxic proteins: relevant structural features 1.3.1.2 Toxic proteins: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.3.1.3 Toxic proteins: risk assessment 1.3.2 Glycoalkaloids 1.3.2.1 Glycoalkaloids: relevant structural features 1.3.2.2 Glycoalkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.3.2.3 Glycoalkaloids: risk assessment 1.3.3 Quinolizidine alkaloids 1.3.3.1 Quinolizidine alkaloids: relevant structural features 1.3.3.2 Quinolizidine alkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.3.3.3 Quinolizidine alkaloids: risk assessment 1.4 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Famine food (cyanogenic glycosides, lathyrogens) 1.4.1 Cyanogenic glycosides 1.4.1.1 Cyanogenic glycosides: relevant structural features 1.4.1.2 Cyanogenic glycosides: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.4.1.3 Cyanogenic glycosides: risk assessment 1.4.2 Lathyrogens 1.4.2.1 Lathyrogens: relevant structural features 1.4.2.2 Lathyrogens: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.4.2.3 Lathyrogens: risk assessment 1.5 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Sensitive individuals (allergens, fava glucosides, and FCs) 1.5.1 Allergens 1.5.2 Fava pyrimidine glycosides 1.5.2.1 Fava pyrimidine glycosides: relevant structural features 1.5.2.2 Fava pyrimidine glycosides: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.5.2.3 Fava pyrimidine glycosides: risk assessment 1.5.3 Furocoumarins 1.5.3.1 Furocoumarins: relevant structural features 1.5.3.2 Furocoumarins: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.5.3.3 Furocoumarins: risk assessment 1.6 Situations where “normal” dietary intake of natural toxins from plant-based foods may raise concern 1.6.1 Glucosinolates 1.6.1.1 Glucosinolates: relevant structural features 1.6.1.2 Glucosinolates: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.6.1.3 Glucosinolates: risk assessment 1.6.2 Alkenylbenzenes including allylalkoxybenzenes and 1-propenylalkoxybenzenes 1.6.2.1 Alkenylbenzenes: structural features 1.6.2.2 Alkenylbenzenes: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.6.2.3 Alkenylbenzenes: risk assessment 1.6.3 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids 1.6.3.1 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids: structural features 1.6.3.2 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.6.3.3 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids: risk assessment 1.7 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Switching varieties [grayanotoxins (GTXs), anisatin, and... 1.7.1 Grayanotoxins 1.7.1.1 Grayanotoxins: structural features 1.7.1.2 Grayanotoxins: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.7.1.3 Grayanotoxins: risk assessment 1.7.2 Anisatin 1.7.2.1 Anisatin: structural features 1.7.2.2 Anisatin: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.7.2.3 Anisatin: risk assessment 1.7.3 Aristolochic acids 1.7.3.1 Aristolochic acids: structural features 1.7.3.2 Aristolochic acids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.7.3.3 Aristolochic acids: risk assessment 1.8 Situations where natural toxins from plants may raise concern: Abuse [tropane alkaloids (TAs), opium alkaloids, delta-9... 1.8.1 Tropane alkaloids 1.8.1.1 Tropane alkaloids: structural features 1.8.1.2 Tropane alkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.8.1.3 Tropane alkaloids: risk assessment 1.8.2 Opium alkaloids 1.8.2.1 Opium alkaloids: structural features 1.8.2.2 Opium alkaloids: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.8.2.3 Opium alkaloids: risk assessment 1.8.3 Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol 1.8.3.1 Tetrahydrocannabinol: structural features 1.8.3.2 Tetrahydrocannabinol: toxic mode of action and adverse effects 1.8.3.3 Tetrahydrocannabinol: risk assessment 1.9 Adulteration with pharmaceutical substances 1.10 Discussion including existing data gaps and research directions References 2 Soil, water, and air: potential contributions of inorganic and organic chemicals 2.1 General introduction 2.2 Heavy metals 2.2.1 Introduction 2.2.2 Sources of heavy metal contamination 2.2.2.1 Air 2.2.2.2 Water 2.2.2.3 Soil 2.2.3 Incidence 2.2.3.1 Air 2.2.3.2 Water 2.2.3.3 Soil 2.2.4 Remediation and preventive measures 2.3 Pesticides 2.3.1 Introduction 2.3.2 Sources of contamination 2.3.2.1 Air 2.3.2.2 Water 2.3.2.3 Soil 2.3.3 Incidence 2.3.3.1 Air 2.3.3.2 Water 2.3.3.3 Soil 2.3.4 Remediation and preventive measures 2.4 Antimicrobials 2.4.1 Introduction 2.4.2 Sources of contamination 2.4.2.1 Air 2.4.2.2 Water 2.4.2.3 Soil 2.4.3 Incidence 2.4.4 Remediation and preventive measures 2.5 Plastics 2.5.1 Introduction 2.5.2 Sources of contamination 2.5.2.1 Air 2.5.2.2 Water 2.5.2.3 Soil 2.5.3 Incidence 2.5.3.1 Air 2.5.3.2 Water 2.5.3.3 Soil 2.5.4 Remediation and preventive measures 2.6 Other industrial chemicals 2.6.1 Introduction 2.6.2 Sources of contamination 2.6.2.1 Air 2.6.2.2 Water 2.6.2.3 Soil 2.6.3 Incidence 2.6.3.1 Air 2.6.3.2 Water 2.6.3.3 Soil 2.6.4 Remediation and preventive measures 2.7 Uptake of environmental pollutants from air, water, and soil to plant foods 2.8 Human health risk assessment 2.8.1 Introduction 2.8.2 Individual or group health assessments 2.8.2.1 Individual 2.8.2.2 Group 2.8.3 Health risk assessment 2.8.3.1 Acute exposure 2.8.3.2 Long-term exposure References 3 Agrochemicals in the Food Chain 3.1 Introduction 3.2 In vivo metabolism of agrochemicals 3.3 Regulation of agrochemicals 3.4 Agrochemicals commonly found as residues in foodstuffs 3.5 Types of agrochemicals and modes of action 3.5.1 Cleaning/disinfecting agents 3.5.2 Pesticides 3.5.2.1 Neurotoxins 3.5.2.1.1 GABA-gated chloride channel antagonists 3.5.2.1.2 Chloride channel activators 3.5.2.1.3 Sodium channel modulators 3.5.2.1.4 Voltage-dependent sodium channel blockers 3.5.2.1.5 Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors 3.5.2.1.6 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists 3.5.2.1.7 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor channel blockers 3.5.2.1.8 Octopamine receptor agonists 3.5.2.1.9 Ryanodine receptor modulators 3.5.2.1.10 Selective feeding blockers—Kir channel inhibition 3.5.2.2 Energy metabolism modulators 3.5.2.2.1 Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation 3.5.2.2.2 Mitochondrial complex electron transport inhibitors 3.5.2.3 Insect growth dysregulation 3.5.2.4 Fungicides 3.5.2.4.1 Inhibitors of lipid/steroid/sterol synthesis 3.5.2.4.2 Inhibitors of methionine synthesis 3.5.2.4.3 Multisite action 3.5.2.5 Herbicides 3.5.2.5.1 Cell walls/growth regulation 3.5.2.5.2 Ripening 3.5.2.5.3 Dysregulation of plant metabolism 3.6 Potential points of concern for agrochemical residues in the food chain 3.6.1 The “cocktail effect” 3.6.2 Endocrine disruption 3.6.3 Effects on the microbiome 3.7 Conclusions and potential areas for further study References 4 Mycotoxins: still with us after all these years 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Compounds of minor public health significance 4.3 Toxins from Fusarium graminearum and related species 4.3.1 Toxins 4.3.2 Management 4.4 Toxins from Fusarium verticillioides and related species 4.4.1 Toxins 4.4.2 Management 4.5 Toxins from Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, and related species 4.5.1 Management 4.5.2 Toxins 4.6 Ochratoxin-producing Penicillium and Aspergillus species 4.6.1 Management 4.6.2 Toxins 4.7 Key issues for the next decade References Section II Changes in the chemical composition of food throughout the various stages of the food chain: animal and milk production 5 Occurrence of antibacterial substances and coccidiostats in animal feed Chapter points 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Antibacterial drugs in feed 5.2.1 Antimicrobials in feed 5.2.2 Coccidiostats in feed 5.3 Medicated feed production 5.3.1 Cross-contamination during feed production, transport, and storage 5.3.2 Toxicity to nontarget animal species 5.4 Antimicrobial residues in food derived from animals 5.5 Antimicrobial resistance 5.6 Antimicrobial drugs: impact on the environment 5.7 Analytical methodology 5.8 Research gaps and future directions References 6 Residues relating to the veterinary therapeutic or growth-promoting use and abuse of medicines 6.1 Introduction, general terms, and significance of the topic 6.2 Authorization process and legal uses of veterinary medicines 6.2.1 Types of medicines used in veterinary practice 6.2.2 Types of directorates/authorities 6.2.3 Authorization of the veterinary medicines and feed additives at national and international level 6.2.4 Proper handling and uses, according to label versus off-label use, cascade concept 6.3 Preventing drug residues in food with animal origin 6.3.1 Control of drug residues in foodstuffs, maximum residue limits concept 6.3.2 Determination of withdrawal period after administration of medicines 6.3.3 Responsibilities of authorities, veterinary practitioners, and farmers in prevention of formation of drug residues in... 6.4 Reasons for the drug residues in food of animal origin 6.5 Conclusions and further perspectives Endnotes References Further reading Section III Changes in the chemical composition of food throughout the various stages of the food chain: fishing and aquaculture 7 Marine biotoxins as natural contaminants in seafood: European perspective 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Paralytic shellfish poisoning 7.1.2 Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning 7.1.3 Azaspiracid shellfish poisoning 7.1.4 Amnesic shellfish poisoning 7.2 Analytical methods 7.3 Transition from biological to chemical methods 7.4 Emerging toxins: incidence and present challenges for their control 7.4.1 Cyclic imines 7.4.2 Palytoxins 7.4.3 Brevetoxins 7.4.4 Ciguatoxins 7.4.5 Tetrodotoxins 7.5 Future perspectives References 8 Pollutants, residues and other contaminants in foods obtained from marine and fresh water Chapter points 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Main text 8.2.1 Water systems 8.2.1.1 Freshwater (rivers, lakes, etc.) versus marine environments 8.2.1.2 Aquaculture and farmed fish versus wild fish 8.2.2 Risk assessment 8.2.3 Pollutants, residues, and contaminants 8.2.3.1 Veterinary medicines and pesticides 8.2.3.2 Benefits of using veterinary medicines in aquaculture 8.2.3.3 Concerns surrounding excessive-use of veterinary medicines 8.2.4 Persistent organic pollutants 8.2.4.1 The Stockholm Convention 8.2.4.2 Persistent organic pollutants in fish and seafood 8.2.5 Metal(oid)s in fish 8.2.6 Eutrophication 8.2.7 Microplastics and nanoplastics 8.2.7.1 Adsorption of pollutants 8.2.8 Foods produced 8.2.8.1 Fish, shellfish, and other animal species 8.2.8.2 Plant foods: seaweeds, algae, etc 8.2.9 Environmental considerations 8.2.9.1 Environmental risk assessment 8.2.10 Water-table contamination: arsenic in rice as a case study 8.2.11 Risk substitution 8.3 Research gaps and future direction 8.3.1 Risk-benefit analysis and personalized medicine 8.3.2 Risk assessment of mixtures 8.3.3 Microplastics and nanoplastics 8.3.4 Algae 8.3.5 Climate change and impact of flooding 8.3.6 Cross boundary management/considerations References 9 Antimicrobial drugs in aquaculture: use and abuse 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Importance of aquaculture globally to meet consumer demand for fish 9.1.2 European Union—the world’s biggest importer of aquaculture products 9.1.3 Strategies to reduce import dependence of aquaculture products in European Union: farming of new fish species 9.1.4 Disease a limiting factor for aquaculture necessitates the use of more and new drugs 9.1.5 General use of veterinary drugs 9.1.5.1 Global and aquaculture levels 9.2 Main text 9.2.1 Aquatic animal diseases 9.2.1.1 OIE database in aquatic animal diseases 9.2.1.2 Alien farmed fish species may result in new pathogens being introduced locally 9.2.2 Legislation governing use of veterinary chemicals in aquaculture in European Union, United States, and elsewhere 9.2.2.1 Concepts of acceptable daily intake, maximum residue limit and withdrawal time 9.2.2.2 Hazard analysis and critical control point approaches 9.2.2.3 Surveillance programs and national control systems 9.2.3 Public/consumer health issues 9.2.4 Analytical techniques to identify drug residues 9.3 Research gaps and future directions References Section IV Changes in the chemical composition of food throughout the various stages of the food chain: manufacture, packaging and distribution 10 Manufacturing and distribution: the role of good manufacturing practice 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Hazard analysis and critical control points and preventive controls 10.3 Preventive controls and recall plans 10.4 Potential sources of chemical hazards during manufacture and distribution* 10.5 Research gaps and future directions References 11 Global regulations for the use of food additives and processing aids Chapter Points 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 International scientific and advisory committees 11.1.1.1 Food and Agricultural Organization and the World Health Organization 11.1.1.2 Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives 11.1.1.3 JECFA general principles of food additive safety evaluation 11.1.1.4 International Programme on Chemical Safety 11.2 Regulations in different jurisdictions 11.3 Global regulation and safety assessment of food additives and processing aids 11.4 Food additive regulations 11.5 Processing aids regulations 11.6 Research gaps and future directions References 12 Direct addition of flavors, including taste and flavor modifiers 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Types of flavors 12.3 Levels of use and uses 12.4 Exposure assessment 12.4.1 Volume-based methods for exposure assessment 12.4.2 Use level–based methods for exposure assessment 12.5 Safety evaluation 12.5.1 Safety evaluation of individual flavor compounds 12.5.2 Safety evaluation of natural flavoring complexes 12.5.3 Safety evaluation of process flavors 12.5.4 Safety evaluation of smoke flavorings 12.6 Examples 12.6.1 Diacetyl: generally recognized as safe implies safe at proposed uses and use levels 12.6.2 Coumarin: carcinogenicity threshold, remarkable species differences, and differences in regulation between the Europ... 12.6.3 Alkenylbenzenes versus naturals containing them: different approach in European Union and United States 12.7 Discussion and conclusions 12.8 Future directions 12.8.1 Intake by children 12.8.2 Use of threshold of toxicological concern for unidentified constituents 12.8.2.1 Reanalysis of the threshold of toxicological concern of 0.15μg/person/day for compounds with a structural alert fo... 12.8.2.2 Exposure assessments 12.8.2.3 Extending the database of available studies for read-across Endnotes References 13 Production of contaminants during thermal processing in both industrial and home preparation of foods 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Potential heat toxic compounds 13.2.1 Acrylamide 13.2.2 Furan 13.3 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural 13.3.1 Heterocyclic amines 13.4 Future prospects Acknowlegdments Conflicts of interest References 14 Migration of packaging and labeling components and advances in analytical methodology supporting exposure assessment 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Types of food packaging and labeling 14.1.2 Types of food packaging materials and labels 14.1.2.1 Legislation 14.2 Migration sources (materials, adhesives, printing inks, varnishes, etc.) 14.2.1 Direct migration 14.2.1.1 Definition of migration and its mechanism 14.2.1.2 Migration analysis 14.2.1.2.1 Adhesives 14.2.1.2.2 Varnishes and lacquers 14.2.1.2.3 Wax 14.2.1.2.4 Printing inks 14.2.2 Set-off phenomena 14.3 Components 14.3.1 Intentionally added substances 14.3.2 Nonintentionally added substances 14.4 Analytical techniques 14.4.1 Volatile compounds 14.4.2 Nonvolatile compounds 14.4.3 Metals and nanoparticles 14.5 Research gaps and future directions References 15 Safety assessment of refillable and recycled plastics packaging for food use Part A Recycled plastics in food contact applications 15.1 History 15.2 Regulations–Authorization and approvals for recycled plastics and food contact applications 15.3 North America 15.3.1 United States 15.4 Safety criteria 15.4.1 US FDA guidance criteria 15.4.2 Canada/Mexico 15.5 Europe 15.6 South America 15.7 Central America 15.8 Asia-Pacific 15.9 Africa 15.10 Conclusion Part B Refillable plastic food contact materials 15.11 History and perspective of returnable refillable plastic food containers 15.12 Refillable plastic containers for consumer market 15.13 Shift away from refillable plastic 15.14 Safety and quality of refillable containers 15.15 Flavor carry-over and effects of repeated use on materials 15.16 Contaminants from misuse 15.17 Contamination rate 15.18 Food contact material regulations 15.19 Refillable food contact materials regulations 15.20 United States and Canada 15.21 European Union 15.22 MERCOSUR and South America 15.23 Code of practices 15.24 Microbial safety 15.25 Sniffer detection technology 15.26 Conclusions References 16 Preventing food fraud 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Overview of food fraud mitigation 16.3 Developing food fraud mitigation plans 16.4 Research gaps and future directions References Section V Changes in the chemical composition of food throughout the various stages of the food chain: identification of emerging chemical risks 17 Emerging contaminants 17.1 Editorial introduction to Chapters 18–24 Disclaimer 18 Emerging contaminants related to plastic and microplastic pollution 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Food safety risks of microplastic pollution 18.3 Effects of microplastic ingestion on humans and living organisms 18.4 Effects of persistent, bioaccumulative compounds associated with microplastics on humans and living organisms 18.5 Effects of pathogenic microbes carried by microplastics on humans and living organisms 18.6 Research gaps and future directions Appendix A Appendix B References Further reading 19 Endocrine disruptors 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Mechanism of action and impact of endocrine disruptors on humane health 19.3 Current approaches for testing and assessment of chemicals for their endocrine activity and consequent adverse effects 19.4 Regulation of endocrine disrupting chemicals risk vs hazard based approach dilemma in assessment of endocrine-disrupti... 19.5 Advances in analytical methodology for detection and quantification of endocrine-disrupting chemical in food 19.5.1 Advances in instrumentation 19.5.2 Sample preparation 19.6 Endocrine disruptors in food 19.6.1 Dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) 19.6.2 Polybrominated diphenyl ethers 19.6.3 Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid 19.6.4 Hormonal active growth promoters used in veterinary 19.6.5 Pesticides 19.6.6 Bisphenol A 19.6.7 Phtalates 19.6.8 Phytoestrogens 19.6.9 Zearalenone 19.6.10 Cadmium 19.7 Research gaps and future directions of research in the field of EDC 19.8 Conclusions References 20 Antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial residues in the food chain 20.1 Introduction 20.2 The lifecycle of antimicrobials in food production 20.3 Antimicrobial residues in foods 20.4 Antimicrobial resistance along the food chain 20.5 Mitigation of antimicrobial resistance risks in food Disclaimer References 21 Climate change as a driving factor for emerging contaminants 21.1 Introduction 21.1.1 Climate change increases the risk of exposure to foodborne contaminants 21.1.1.1 Foodborne pathogens and parasites 21.1.1.2 Algal blooms 21.1.1.3 Heavy metals 21.1.1.4 Mycotoxins 21.2 Conclusion Disclaimer Endnotes References 22 Emerging mycotoxin risks due to climate change. What to expect in the coming decade? 22.1 Important mycotoxins in food 22.2 Factors affecting the production of mycotoxins 22.3 Predicted climate changes and their potential effects on future mycotoxins contamination 22.4 Current analytical techniques and future analytic challenges 22.5 Emerging mycotoxins threats under climate change conditions 22.6 Research gaps and future directions References 23 Emerging contaminants in the context of food fraud 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Veterinary drugs residues in food 23.3 Food adulteration with extraneous additives 23.4 Illegally produced or counterfeit alcohol 23.5 Definitions and databases 23.6 Early warning systems 23.7 Research gaps and future directions Disclaimer References 24 Trends in risk assessment of chemical contaminants in food 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Fundamentals of chemical risk assessment: concepts, principles, methods 24.2.1 Hazard identification 24.2.2 Hazard characterization 24.2.2.1 Benchmark dose modeling 24.2.2. 2 Approach to identifying the genotoxic and carcinogenic potential of chemicals 24.2.2.3 Practical approaches to mixture risk assessment 24.2.3 Exposure assessment 24.2.3.1 Threshold of Toxicological Concern 24.2.3.2 Margin-of-Exposure 24.2.4 Risk characterization 24.3 Risk perception in food safety risk assessment 24.4 Research gaps and future directions Disclaimer References Section VI Changes in pathogenic microbiological contamination of food pre- and post-farm gate/fishing 25 Common and natural occurrence of pathogens, including fungi, leading to primary and secondary product contamination 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Foodborne pathogenic bacteria 25.2.1 Staphylococcus aureus 25.2.2 Clostridium 25.2.2.1 Clostridium botulinum 25.2.2.2 Clostridium perfringens 25.2.3 Bacillus cereus 25.2.4 Listeria monocytogenes 25.2.5 Escherichia coli 25.2.6 Salmonella 25.2.7 Campylobacter 25.2.8 Shigella 25.2.9 Yersinia 25.2.10 Brucella 25.2.11 Cronobacter 25.3 Toxigenic fungi 25.3.1 Aspergillus 25.3.1.1 Aspergillus section Flavi 25.3.1.2 Aspergillus section Circumdati 25.3.1.3 Aspergillus section Nigri 25.3.2 Penicillium 25.3.3 Fusarium 25.3.3.1 Fusarium species producing fumonisins 25.3.3.2 Fusarium species producing deoxynivalenol 25.3.3.3 Fusarium species producing zearalenone 25.4 Routes of contamination 25.4.1 Feces and manure 25.4.1.1 Compost 25.4.2 Seeds 25.4.3 Soil 25.4.4 Dust 25.4.5 Insects and wildlife 25.4.6 Food handlers 25.4.7 Facilities, equipment, and utensils 25.4.8 Drying and storage 25.5 Research gaps and future directions References 26 Contributions of pathogens from agricultural water to fresh produce 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Agricultural water’s role in produce safety 26.2.1 Outbreaks linked to agricultural water 26.2.2 Microbial water quality standards 26.2.3 Quantitative microbial risk assessment 26.3 Foodborne pathogens and microbial indicators in agricultural waters 26.3.1 Prevalence of foodborne pathogens in agricultural waters 26.3.1.1 Bacterial pathogen prevalence 26.3.1.2 Virus prevalence 26.3.1.3 Parasitic pathogen prevalence 26.3.2 Regional differences on the presence of foodborne pathogens 26.3.3 Environmental impacts on the presence of foodborne pathogens 26.3.3.1 Seasonal differences 26.3.3.2 Temporal variations 26.3.3.3 Spatial variations 26.4 Fate of foodborne pathogens in agricultural waters 26.4.1 Foodborne pathogens survival in water 26.4.1.1 Temperature 26.4.1.2 Sunlight (UV radiation) 26.4.1.3 Nutrients 26.4.1.4 pH 26.4.1.5 Water source 26.4.1.6 Environmental reservoirs—bottom sediments and bank soils 26.4.1.7 Aquatic biota 26.4.2 Foodborne pathogen survival in water distribution systems 26.4.2.1 Biofilms 26.4.2.2 Effect of biofilms in pipe-based irrigation systems 26.4.3 Foodborne pathogen fate during and after application to produce crops 26.5 Agricultural water management and mitigations 26.5.1 Management and testing 26.5.2 Control and water treatment 26.5.3 Corrective actions and measures (before and after using water) 26.6 Conclusions/future needs References 27 Microbial pathogen contamination of animal feed Chapter points 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Animal feed and microbial contamination—general concepts 27.3 Potential sources of microbial contamination in feed manufacturing 27.3.1 Feed manufacturing steps as a source of cross-contamination 27.3.2 Rendering 27.3.3 Animal versus plant-derived bacterial contamination in feeds 27.4 Microbial pathogen contamination of feeds—general concepts 27.4.1 Salmonella 27.4.2 Campylobacter 27.4.3 Listeria monocytogenes 27.5 Pathogenic Escherichia coli 27.5.1 Clostridia 27.6 Fungi 27.7 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in feed 27.8 Conclusions and future directions References 28 Zoonoses from animal meat and milk Chapter points 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Factors impacting increase in zoonotic incidences worldwide 28.2.1 Population expansion, urbanization, and international trade 28.2.2 Plant-based to animal-based and small-scale to industrialized food production practices 28.2.3 Blurring of the animal–human–environment interface 28.2.3.1 Human-mediated factors impacting the emergence and spread of zoonoses 28.2.3.2 Climate change 28.3 Common foodborne zoonotic agents 28.3.1 Bacteria 28.3.1.1 Bacillus anthracis 28.3.1.2 Brucella spp 28.3.1.3 Campylobacter spp 28.3.1.4 Clostridium spp 28.3.1.5 Pathogenic Escherichia coli group 28.3.1.6 Listeria spp 28.3.1.7 Mycobacterium spp 28.3.1.8 Salmonella spp 28.3.1.9 Staphylococcus spp 28.3.1.10 Yersinia spp 28.3.2 Viruses 28.3.2.1 Hepevirus 28.3.3 Parasites 28.3.3.1 Cryptosporidium parvum 28.3.3.2 Sarcocystis spp 28.3.3.3 Taenia spp 28.3.3.4 Toxoplasma gondii 28.3.3.5 Trichinella spiralis 28.4 Research gaps and future directions 28.4.1 Consumer awareness and education 28.4.2 Detection methods—scope for improvement Endnotes References 29 Abattoir hygiene 29.1 Introduction 29.1.1 The role of abattoirs—past and current status 29.2 Veterinary public health 29.2.1 Prevention and control of zoonoses and other meat-borne diseases 29.2.2 Antemortem and postmortem meat inspection 29.3 Prerequisite programs for abattoirs 29.3.1 Layout 29.3.2 Equipment 29.3.3 Ventilation 29.3.4 Veterinary-sanitary requirements 29.4 Animal welfare in abattoir hygiene context 29.4.1 Transport of animals from farm/livestock market to abattoir 29.4.2 Lairage 29.4.3 Stunning 29.5 Slaughter and dressing in abattoir hygiene context 29.5.1 Stunning, sticking, and bleeding of slaughter animals 29.5.2 Dehiding of cattle and small ruminants 29.5.2.1 Legs 29.5.2.2 Head 29.5.3 Scalding, dehairing, singeing, and polishing of pigs 29.5.4 Evisceration 29.5.4.1 Cattle 29.5.4.2 Small ruminants 29.5.4.3 Pigs 29.5.5 Splitting, washing, and dressing of carcasses 29.5.5.1 Cattle 29.5.5.2 Sheep 29.5.5.3 Pigs 29.5.5.4 Carcass dressing 29.5.5.5 Carcass washing 29.5.6 Chilling procedures (carcasses and offal) 29.5.7 Animal by-product utilization 29.5.8 Wastewater management 29.6 Food safety management system in the context of abattoir hygiene 29.6.1 Nonintervention hazard analysis and critical control point 29.6.2 Intervention hazard analysis and critical control point 29.7 Discussions and future directions 29.7.1 Farm-to-chilled carcass approach 29.7.2 Automation and robotics in abattoir 29.7.3 Future perspectives—looking ahead References 30 Dairy production: microbial safety of raw milk and processed milk products 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Dairy value chain 30.3 Microbiology of raw milk 30.3.1 Pathogenic organisms 30.3.2 Spoilage organisms 30.4 Dairy processing and safety of processed products 30.4.1 Thermal processing and quality of fresh milk products 30.4.1.1 Pasteurized milk 30.4.1.2 Ultra-high temperature (UHT) processed milk 30.4.1.3 Extended shelf life (ESL) milk 30.4.2 Quality of fermented dairy products 30.4.2.1 Microbial quality of cheese 30.5 Hygiene in dairy processing 30.5.1 Sources of contamination in dairy processing 30.5.1.1 Bioaerosols 30.5.1.2 Contaminated water 30.5.1.3 Personnel hygiene 30.5.1.4 Biofilms 30.5.1.5 Sanitization and cleaning in place (CIP) 30.5.1.6 Packaging material 30.6 Risk-based preventative approach to dairy food safety 30.6.1 Microbiological risk assessment and role in dairy food safety 30.6.2 HACCP –based food safety systems 30.7 Gaps and future directions References 31 Reduction of risks associated with processed meats Chapter points 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Antimicrobials in processed meat formulations 31.2.1 Nitrate and nitrite 31.2.2 Acids and sodium salts of acids 31.2.3 Plant extracts and essential oils 31.2.4 Bacteriocins and bacteriocin-producing organisms 31.2.5 Bacteriophage 31.2.6 Novel antimicrobial strategies 31.3 Nonthermal processing technologies to reduce risks 31.3.1 High hydrostatic pressure processing 31.3.2 Atmospheric cold plasma 31.3.3 Ultraviolet-C radiation 31.3.4 Other nonthermal processing technologies to improve the safety of processed meats 31.4 Research gaps and future directions References 32 Pathogens and their sources in freshwater fish, sea finfish, shellfish, and algae 32.1 Introduction 32.2 Microbial hazards associated with fish 32.2.1 Vibrio 32.2.2 Salmonella 32.2.3 Aeromonas 32.2.4 Listeria 32.2.5 Clostridium 32.2.6 Viruses 32.3 Algae 32.4 Source of fish microbial contamination 32.4.1 Preharvest (prefarm gate) 32.4.1.1 Cropping systems 32.4.1.2 Livestock systems 32.4.1.3 Human settlements 32.4.1.4 Industries 32.4.2 Postharvest (postfarm gate) 32.5 Fish, antibiotic resistance, and other public health concerns 32.6 New trends in the detection of microbial hazards 32.6.1 Detection methods 32.6.1.1 PCR based methods 32.6.1.2 Traditional PCR 32.6.1.3 Real-time PCR 32.6.1.4 High-resolution melting 32.6.1.5 Multiplex PCR 32.6.1.6 Next-generation sequencing 32.6.2 Monitoring of microbial safety 32.7 Speculation on future challenges 32.7.1 Climate change and pathogens References 33 The evolution of molecular methods to study seafood-associated pathogens 33.1 Introduction 33.2 Naturally occurring microbial risks 33.3 Pathogenic vibrios 33.4 Human-introduced pathogens 33.5 The evolution of methods—norovirus and hepatitis A virus 33.6 Evolution of approaches—pathogenic vibrios 33.7 Understanding past outbreaks 33.8 Future direction