Practical Civil Engineering

Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Authors Chapter 1 Introduction to Civil Engineering 1.1 Scope of Civil Engineering 1.2 Responsibilities and Role of a Civil Engineer 1.3 History of Civil Engineering 1.4 Branches of Civil Engineering 1.4.1 Structural Engineering 1.4.2 Building Construction 1.4.3 Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering 1.4.4 Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering 1.4.5 Environmental Engineering 1.4.6 Transportation Engineering 1.4.7 Construction Technology and Management 1.4.8 Earthquake Engineering 1.4.9 Materials Engineering 1.4.10 Urban and Municipal Engineering 1.4.11 Town Planning 1.4.12 Coastal Engineering 1.4.13 Surveying 1.4.14 Photogrammetry and Mapping 1.4.15 Estimating and Costing 1.5 Civil Engineering for Infrastructure Development of a Country 1.6 Civil Engineering Structures 1.6.1 Building 1.6.2 Bridges 1.6.3 Dams 1.6.4 Roads 1.6.5 Runways 1.6.6 Railways 1.6.7 Water Tanks 1.6.8 Retaining Walls 1.6.9 Towers 1.6.10 Chimneys 1.6.11 Pipelines 1.6.12 Canals 1.7 Codes and Specifications 1.7.1 Functions of Codes 1.7.2 ASTM International 1.7.3 British Standards 1.7.4 Eurocodes 1.7.5 Australian Standards Chapter 2 Units, Measurements, and Symbols 2.1 Systems of Measurements 2.1.1 The C.G.S. System 2.1.2 The M.K.S. System 2.1.3 The F.P.S. System 2.2 The S.I. System 2.2.1 Fundamental Units 2.2.1.1 Meter 2.2.1.2 Kilogram 2.2.1.3 Second 2.2.2 Derived Units 2.3 Rules for SI Units 2.4 Measures of Length 2.5 Measures of Weights 2.6 Measures of Surface Area 2.7 Cubic Measures 2.8 Power, Work, Energy, and Heat 2.8.1 Unit of Heat 2.8.2 Unit of Force Chapter 3 Preliminary Mathematics 3.1 Mathematical Signs, Symbols, and Abbreviations 3.2 Mensuration 3.2.1 Mensuration of Areas 3.2.1.1 Circle 3.2.1.2 Square 3.2.1.3 Triangle 3.2.1.4 Semicircle 3.2.1.5 Arc of a Circle 3.2.1.6 Sector of a Circle 3.2.1.7 Segment of a Circle 3.2.1.8 Polygons 3.2.2 Mensuration of Volumes 3.2.2.1 Cube 3.2.2.2 Cuboid 3.2.2.3 Pyramid 3.2.2.4 Circular Cone 3.2.2.5 Wedge 3.2.2.6 Sphere 3.2.2.7 Hemisphere 3.2.2.8 Spherical Sector 3.2.2.9 Spherical Zone 3.2.2.10 Spherical Wedge 3.2.2.11 Hollow Sphere or Spherical Shell 3.2.2.12 Cylindrical Ring or Torus 3.3 Algebraic Formulae 3.3.1 Exponent Rules 3.3.2 Powers of Ten 3.3.3 Simple Algebra 3.3.4 Formulae for Abridged Multiplication 3.3.5 Quadratic Equations 3.3.6 Cubic Equations 3.4 Trigonometry 3.4.1 Trigonometric Functions 3.4.2 Trigonometric Relations 3.4.3 Functions of the Sum and Differences of Two Angles 3.4.4 Functions of ½ A 3.4.5 Functions of 2A 3.4.6 Products and Powers of Functions 3.4.7 Sums and Differences of Functions 3.4.8 Rule for the Change of Trigonometrical Ratios 3.5 Solution of Triangles 3.5.1 Relation between Angles and Sides of Plane Triangles 3.5.1.1 Law of Sines 3.5.1.2 Law of Cosines 3.6 Matrix 3.6.1 Transpose of a Matrix 3.6.2 Types of Matrix 3.6.2.1 Square Matrix 3.6.2.2 Rectangular Matrix 3.6.2.3 Null Matrix or Zero Matrix 3.6.2.4 Triangular Matrix 3.6.2.5 Diagonal Matrix 3.6.2.6 Scalar Matrix 3.6.2.7 Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix 3.6.2.8 Row Matrix 3.6.2.9 Column Matrix 3.6.2.10 Nilpotent Matrix 3.6.2.11 Symmetrical Matrix 3.6.2.12 Skew Symmetrical Matrix 3.6.2.13 Orthogonal Matrix 3.6.3 Submatrix 3.6.4 Determinant of a Matrix 3.6.5 Minor of a Matrix 3.6.6 Cofactor of a Matrix 3.6.7 Adjoint of a Matrix 3.6.8 Equality of Two Matrices 3.6.9 Matrix Operations 3.6.9.1 Matrix Addition 3.6.9.2 Matrix Multiplication 3.6.9.3 Inverse of a Matrix 3.7 Calculus 3.7.1 Limits 3.7.1.1 Functions of Single-Variable Limits 3.7.1.2 Right Hand and Left Hand Limits 3.7.1.3 Theorems on Limits 3.7.1.4 Some Useful Limits 3.7.1.5 L’Hospital’s Rule 3.7.2 Differentiability 3.7.2.1 Rules of Differentiation 3.7.2.2 Some Standard Derivatives 3.7.2.3 Differentiation by Substitution 3.7.2.4 Mean Value Theorems 3.7.2.5 Partial Derivatives 3.7.3 Integration 3.7.3.1 Some Standard Integrations 3.7.3.2 Definite Integral 3.7.3.3 Improper Integral 3.7.3.4 Multiple Integrals 3.7.3.5 Change of Order of Integration 3.7.3.6 Triple Integrals 3.7.4 Fourier Series 3.7.4.1 Dirichlet’s Condition 3.7.4.2 Fourier Series in the Interval (a, b) 3.7.5 Series 3.7.5.1 Sequences 3.7.5.2 Series 3.7.5.3 Series Tests 3.7.6 Vector 3.7.6.1 Unit Vector 3.7.6.2 Null Vector 3.7.6.3 Product of Two Vectors 3.7.6.4 Differentiation of Vector 3.7.6.5 Vector Calculus 3.7.6.6 Divergence 3.7.6.7 Curl 3.7.7 Line Integral 3.7.8 Surfaces 3.7.8.1 Smooth Surfaces 3.7.8.2 Orientable and Nonorientable Surfaces 3.7.8.3 Surface Integral 3.7.8.4 Flux across a Surface 3.7.9 Volume Integral 3.7.10 Stroke’s Theorem 3.7.11 Green Theorem 3.7.12 Gauss’s Divergence Theorem (Relation between Surface and Volume Integrals) Chapter 4 Engineering Mechanics 4.1 Statics of Particle: Forces on a Plane 4.1.1 Types of System of Forces 4.1.1.1 Coplanar Force System 4.1.1.2 Concurrent Force System 4.1.1.3 Collinear Force System 4.1.1.4 Parallel Force System 4.1.2 Resultant of Forces 4.1.2.1 Parallelogram Law of Forces 4.1.2.2 Triangle Law of Forces 4.1.2.3 Polygon Law of Forces 4.1.2.4 Resultant of Coplanar Concurrent Force Systems 4.1.3 Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces 4.1.3.1 Lami’s Theorem 4.1.3.2 Conditions for the Equilibrium of Coplanar Concurrent Force Systems 4.2 Moment of a Force 4.2.1 Varignon’s Theorem 4.3 Couple 4.4 Statics of Particle: Noncoplanar Concurrent Forces in Space 4.4.1 Resultant of Concurrent Force Systems in Space 4.4.2 Equilibrium of Concurrent Space Forces 4.5 Statics of Rigid Body: Nonconcurrent, Coplanar Forces on a Plane Rigid Body 4.5.1 Conditions of Equilibrium of Coplanar Nonconcurrent Force Systems 4.5.2 Free Body Diagram 4.5.3 Principle of Transmissibility 4.5.4 Principle of Superposition of Forces 4.6 Types of Supports 4.6.1 Roller Supports 4.6.2 Hinged Supports 4.6.3 Fixed Supports 4.6.4 Pinned Supports 4.7 Types of Beams 4.7.1 Simply Supported Beam 4.7.2 Fixed Beam 4.7.3 Cantilever Beam 4.7.4 Continuously Supported Beam 4.7.5 Overhanging Beams 4.8 Types of Loads 4.8.1 Point Loads 4.8.2 Uniformly Distributed Load 4.8.3 Uniformly Varying Load 4.8.4 Support Reactions 4.9 Friction 4.9.1 Static Friction 4.9.2 Kinetic Friction/Dynamic Friction 4.9.2.1 Sliding Friction 4.9.2.2 Rolling friction 4.9.3 Laws of Friction 4.9.3.1 Law 1 4.9.3.2 Law 2 4.9.3.3 Law 3 4.9.3.4 Law 4 4.9.3.5 Law 5 4.9.4 Coefficient of Friction 4.9.5 Calculation of Frictional Force on a Body 4.9.6 Angle of Friction 4.9.7 Angle of Repose 4.9.8 Cone of Friction 4.9.9 Wedge Friction 4.9.10 Ladder Friction 4.10 Properties of Surfaces and Solids 4.10.1 Center of Gravity 4.10.2 Centroid 4.10.3 Axis of Reference 4.10.4 Axis of Symmetry 4.10.5 CG of Solid Bodies 4.10.6 Centroid of Area 4.10.7 Theorems of Pappus–Guldinus 4.10.7.1 Theorem1 4.10.7.2 Theorem 2 4.10.8 Moment of Inertia 4.10.8.1 Radius of Gyration 4.10.8.2 Perpendicular Axis Theorem 4.10.8.3 Parallel Axis Theorem 4.10.8.4 Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas 4.10.9 Instantaneous Center 4.11 Kinetics of Particle 4.11.1 Work 4.11.1.1 Work Done by Friction Force 4.11.1.2 Work Done by a Spring 4.11.1.3 Work Done by Torque 4.11.1.4 Work Done by a Force on a Moving Body 4.11.1.5 Work Done by a Variable Force 4.11.2 Power 4.11.3 Energy 4.11.3.1 Potential Energy 4.11.3.2 Kinetic Energy 4.11.4 Work-Energy Principle 4.11.5 Impulse and Momentum 4.11.5.1 Law of Conservation of Momentum 4.11.6 Collision of Elastic Bodies 4.11.6.1 Newton’s Law of Collision of Elastic Bodies 4.11.7 Types of collision 4.11.7.1 Direct Collision of Two Bodies 4.11.7.2 Direct Impact of a Body with a Fixed Plane 4.11.7.3 Indirect Impact of Two Bodies 4.11.7.4 Indirect Impact of a Body with a Fixed Plane 4.12 Kinematics of a Particle 4.12.1 Plane Motion 4.12.1.1 Translation 4.12.1.2 Rotation 4.12.1.3 General Plane Motion 4.12.2 Kinetics of Rigid Bodies under Combined Translational and Rotational Motion 4.12.3 Principle of Conservation of Energy Chapter 5 Mechanics of Structures and Their Analysis 5.1 Simple Stress 5.1.1 Introduction 5.1.2 Stress 5.1.3 Stress on an Oblique Plane Due to Axial Loading 5.2 Simple Strain 5.2.1 Stress–Strain Diagram 5.2.1.1 Proportional Limit 5.2.1.2 Elastic Limit 5.2.1.3 Elastic and Plastic Ranges 5.2.1.4 Yield Point 5.2.1.5 Ultimate Strength 5.2.1.6 Rupture Strength 5.2.1.7 Modulus of Resilience 5.2.1.8 Modulus of Toughness 5.2.2 Axial Deformation 5.2.3 Shearing Deformation 5.2.4 Poisson’s Ratio 5.2.5 Biaxial Deformation 5.2.6 Triaxial Deformation 5.2.7 Thermal Stress 5.3 Statically Determinate Members 5.3.1 Determinacy and Stability 5.3.2 Statically Indeterminate Members 5.3.3 Truss Structures 5.4 Relationship between Elastic Constants 5.5 Principal Planes and Principal Stresses 5.5.1 Principal Axis 5.5.2 Maximum and Minimum Normal Stress 5.5.3 Maximum Shear Stress 5.6 Mohr’s Circle Method 5.6.1 Equation of the Mohr Circle 5.7 Combined Stresses 5.7.1 Stresses Developed through Axial Load Combinations and Bending Moments 5.7.2 Direct Shear in Association with Torsion 5.7.3 Stresses Produced Due to Combined Action of Bending and Torsion 5.8 Physical Properties of Materials and Their Measuring Parameters 5.8.1 Brittleness 5.8.2 Ductility 5.8.3 Elasticity 5.8.4 Hardness 5.8.5 Malleability 5.8.6 Modulus of Resilience 5.8.7 Plasticity 5.8.8 Proof Resilience 5.8.9 Relative Density 5.8.10 Resilience 5.8.11 Secant Modulus 5.8.12 Specific Modulus of Elasticity 5.8.13 Stiffness 5.8.14 Tenacity 5.8.15 Toughness 5.9 Shear Forces and Bending Moments 5.9.1 Transverse Loading 5.9.2 Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) 5.9.3 Sign Convention 5.9.4 SFD and BMD for Different Cantilever and Simply Supported Beams 5.9.5 Relation between Load, Shear, and Bending Moment 5.10 Bending Stresses in Beams 5.10.1 Assumptions in the Theory of Simple Bending 5.10.2 Theory of Simple Bending 5.10.3 Position of Neutral Axis 5.10.4 Moment of Resistance 5.10.5 Section Modulus 5.11 Shearing Stresses in Beams 5.11.1 Shear Flow 5.11.2 Built-Up Beams 5.12 Deeflctions 5.12.1 Correlation between Slope, Deflection, and Radius of Curvature 5.12.2 Moment Area Method 5.12.2.1 Sign Rules 5.12.3 Conjugate Beam Method 5.13 Indeterminate Structures 5.13.1 Force Method 5.13.2 Displacement Method 5.14 Fixed Beams 5.14.1 Method of Superposition 5.14.2 Double Integration Method 5.14.3 Moment Area Method 5.14.3.1 Mohr’s First Theorem (Mohr I) 5.14.3.2 Mohr’s Second Theorem (Mohr II) 5.15 Continuous Beams 5.15.1 Three-Moment Theorem 5.16 Torsion 5.16.1 Terms Related to Torsion 5.16.1.1 Torsional Shearing Stress (τ) 5.16.1.2 Angle of Twist 5.16.1.3 Power Transmitted by the Shaft 5.16.1.4 Equivalent Torque 5.16.2 Composite Shafts 5.16.2.1 Composite Shafts in Series 5.16.2.2 Composite Shafts in Parallel 5.16.3 Shaft Couplings 5.17 Thin Cylinders 5.17.1 Failure of Thin Cylinders 5.17.2 Applications of Thin Cylinders 5.17.3 Thin Cylinders Subjected to Internal Pressure 5.17.3.1 Hoop Stress on Thin Cylinders 5.17.3.2 Radial Stress on Thin Cylinders 5.17.3.3 Longitudinal Stress on Thin cylinders 5.18 Thick Cylinders 5.19 Columns and Struts 5.19.1 Euler’s Theorem of Columns 5.20 Springs 5.20.1 Closed Coiled Helical Springs 5.20.1.1 Under Axial Load, W 5.20.1.2 Under Axial Torque Load,T 5.20.2 Open Coiled Helical Spring 5.21 Strain Energy Chapter 6 Principles of Surveying 6.1 Basic Principles of Surveying 6.1.1 Objectives of Surveying 6.1.2 Need of Surveying 6.1.3 General Principle of Surveying 6.1.4 Scales 6.1.4.1 Plain Scale 6.1.4.2 Diagonal Scale 6.1.4.3 Vernier Scale 6.1.4.4 Scale of Chords 6.2 Classification of Surveying 6.2.1 Primary Classification 6.2.1.1 Plane Surveying 6.2.1.2 Geodetic Surveying 6.2.2 Secondary Classification 6.3 Values of a Quantity 6.3.1 True Value of a Quantity 6.3.2 Observed Value of a Quantity 6.3.3 Most Probable Value of a Quantity 6.3.4 Principle of Least Square 6.4 Errors 6.4.1 Sources of Errors 6.4.1.1 Instrumental Errors 6.4.1.2 Personal Errors 6.4.1.3 Natural Errors 6.4.2 Types of Surveying Errors 6.4.2.1 Mistakes 6.4.2.2 Accidental Errors 6.4.2.3 Systematic or Cumulative Errors 6.4.2.4 Compensating Errors 6.4.3 Most Probable Error 6.5 Vertical Control 6.6 Measurement of Distance 6.6.1 Methods of Linear Surveying 6.6.1.1 Direct Measurement 6.6.1.2 Measurement by Optical Means 6.6.1.3 Electronic Method 6.7 Contouring 6.7.1 Terms related to Contouring 6.7.2 Characteristics of Contours 6.8 Traverse Surveying 6.8.1 Procedure for Traverse Calculations 6.8.1.1 Balancing Angles of Closed Traverses 6.8.1.2 Closure of Latitudes and Departures 6.9 Hydrographic Surveying 6.9.1 Horizontal Controls 6.9.2 Vertical Controls 6.9.3 Sounding and the Methods Employed in Sounding 6.9.3.1 Sounding Boat 6.9.3.2 Fathometer 6.10 Curves 6.10.1 Simple Curve 6.10.1.1 Elements of a Simple Curve 6.10.1.2 Methods of Setting Out of Single Circular Curve 6.10.2 Compound Curve 6.10.3 Transition Curves 6.10.3.1 Requirement of Transition Curve 6.11 Earthworks 6.11.1 Computation of Areas 6.11.1.1 Areas of Skeleton 6.11.1.2 Considering the Area along Boundaries 6.11.2 Computation of Volume 6.11.2.1 Method of Cross Sections 6.11.2.2 Trapezoidal Formula 6.11.2.3 Prismoidal Formula 6.11.3 Methods of Contours for Volume Computation 6.11.4 Prismoidal Correction for Volume 6.11.5 Curvature Correction for Volumes 6.11.5.1 Equivalent Areas 6.11.5.2 Pappus Theorem 6.12 Geodetic Surveying 6.12.1 Triangulation 6.12.1.1 Objectives of Triangulation 6.12.1.2 Classification of Triangulation System 6.12.2 Curvature and Refraction 6.12.3 Intervisibility and Height of Stations 6.12.3.1 Distance between Stations 6.12.3.2 Relative Elevations of Stations 6.13 Photogrammetry 6.13.1 Terrestrial Photogrammetry 6.13.2 Aerial Photogrammetry 6.13.3 Orthophotos 6.14 Modern Surveying Equipment 6.14.1 EDM Instruments 6.14.1.1 Infrared Wave Instruments 6.14.1.2 Light Wave Instruments 6.14.1.3 Microwave Instruments 6.14.2 Total Station 6.14.3 Automatic Level 6.15 Modern Surveying Methods 6.15.1 Remote Sensing 6.15.2 Geographical Information System 6.15.3 Global Positioning System 6.15.3.1 GPS Baseline 6.15.3.2 Kinematic GPS 6.15.3.3 Continuously Operating Reference Stations 6.15.3.4 Heights from GPS Chapter 7 Building Materials 7.1 Principal Properties of Building Materials 7.1.1 Physical Characters 7.1.2 Mechanical Properties 7.2 Structural Clay Products 7.2.1 Properties 7.3 Rocks and Stones 7.3.1 Requirements of Good Building Stones 7.3.2 Tests on Stones 7.3.3 Common Building Stones 7.4 Wood and Wood Products 7.4.1 Problems of Using Wood as a Building Material 7.4.2 Minimizing the Problems of Wood 7.4.3 Seasoning of Timber 7.5 Materials for Making Concrete 7.5.1 Materials Used in RCC Work 7.5.2 Types of Concrete 7.6 Mortars 7.6.1 Properties of a Good Mortar 7.6.2 Preparation of Cement Mortar 7.6.3 Precautions in Using Mortar 7.6.4 Tests for Mortar 7.7 Paints, Enamels, Varnishes 7.7.1 Painting 7.7.2 Characteristics of an Ideal Paint 7.7.3 Pigment Volume Concentration Number (PVCN) 7.7.4 Components of Paint 7.7.5 Types of Paint 7.7.6 Defects in Painting 7.7.7 Varnish 7.7.8 The Qualities of a Good Varnish 7.7.9 Distempering 7.7.9.1 Properties 7.7.10 Ingredients of a Distemper 7.8 Tar, Bitumen, Asphalt 7.8.1 Tar 7.8.2 Bitumen 7.8.3 Forms of Bitumen 7.8.4 Properties of Bituminous Materials 7.8.5 Asphalt 7.8.6 Forms of Asphalt 7.9 Miscellaneous Materials 7.9.1 Abrasives 7.9.2 Adhesives 7.9.3 Asbestos 7.9.4 Cork 7.9.5 Fly Ash 7.9.6 Gypsum 7.10 Metals and Alloys 7.10.1 Ferrous Metals 7.10.2 Nonferrous Metals 7.10.3 Other Brass Alloys 7.10.4 Other Bronze Alloys 7.11 Ceramic Materials 7.12 Polymeric Materials 7.12.1 Characteristics of Polymers 7.13 Polymer Fiber Composites 7.14 Geosynthetics 7.15 Soil Stabilizers 7.15.1 Stabilizing Agents 7.16 Sustainable Construction Materials Chapter 8 Building Construction Technology and Management 8.1 Basics of Construction Technology 8.1.1 What is Construction Technology? 8.1.2 Scope of Construction Technology and Management 8.1.3 Impact of Construction Technology 8.1.3.1 Positive Construction Impact for a Worker 8.1.3.2 Positive Impact on Surroundings 8.1.3.3 Positive Impact on the Country 8.1.3.4 Negative Impact of Construction for a Worker 8.1.3.5 Impact on Environment: Cutting of Trees 8.1.3.6 Wrapping Up 8.2 Planning for and Controlling Construction 8.2.1 Community Development 8.2.2 Managing Community Development 8.2.3 The Role of Management 8.2.4 Teamwork 8.2.5 Accountability 8.3 Construction Safety 8.3.1 Safety Importance 8.3.2 Designing for Safety 8.3.3 Role of Various Parties in Designing for Safety 8.4 The Construction Process 8.4.1 Initiating the Project 8.4.2 Designing the Project 8.4.3 Design Methodology 8.4.4 Functional Design 8.4.5 Preliminary Design 8.4.6 Design Development 8.4.7 Construction Documents and Bidding 8.4.8 Types of Contractors 8.4.9 Types of Contracts 8.4.10 Managing Construction Projects 8.4.11 Preparing the Site 8.4.12 Geotechnical Report Related to Site Soil Properties 8.4.13 Construction Site Clearing and Excavation 8.4.14 Grading of Construction Project Site 8.4.15 Building the Project 8.4.16 Completing the Final Inspection 8.4.17 Closing the Contract 8.5 Construction Tools and Equipment 8.5.1 Tools 8.5.2 Building Construction Equipment 8.6 Construction Scheduling 8.6.1 Purpose of Scheduling 8.6.2 Methods of Scheduling 8.6.3 Scheduling Workers 8.6.4 Obtaining Materials 8.6.5 Obtaining Equipment 8.6.6 Obtaining Permits 8.7 Beginning Construction 8.7.1 Site Preparation 8.7.1.1 Establishing Site Preparation 8.7.1.2 Providing Access to Site 8.7.1.3 Clearing the Site 8.7.1.4 Locating a Structure 8.7.1.5 Locating Temporary Buildings 8.7.1.6 Securing the Site 8.7.2 Earthwork and Foundation 8.7.3 Damp Proofing of Foundation Walls 8.7.4 Building the Super Structure 8.7.4.1 Floor 8.7.4.2 Walls 8.7.4.3 Roof and Ceiling Framing 8.7.4.4 Installing Fascia and Sheathing 8.8 Installation of Plumbing and Sanitary Fittings 8.8.1 Plumbing Systems 8.8.1.1 Piping System 8.8.1.2 Materials for Residential and Light Commercial Piping System 8.8.2 Sanitary Fittings 8.9 Installation of HVAC and Communication Systems 8.9.1 Temperature Control 8.9.2 Humidity Control 8.9.3 Cleaning Air 8.10 Electrical Power System 8.11 Landscaping Chapter 9 Concrete Technology 9.1 Fresh Concrete 9.1.1 Properties of Fresh Concrete 9.1.1.1 Consistency 9.1.1.2 Setting of Concrete 9.1.1.3 Workability 9.1.1.4 Bleeding and Segregation in Concrete 9.1.1.5 Hydration in Concrete 9.1.1.6 Air Entrainment 9.2 Rheology of Concrete 9.3 Hardened Concrete 9.3.1 Properties of Hardened Concrete 9.3.1.1 Strength 9.3.1.2 Creep 9.3.1.3 Durability 9.3.1.4 Shrinkage 9.3.1.5 Modulus of Elasticity 9.3.1.6 Water Tightness 9.3.2 Factors Affecting Properties of Hardened Concrete 9.3.2.1 W/C Ratio 9.3.2.2 Type and Amount of Cement 9.3.2.3 Type and Amount of Aggregate 9.3.2.4 Weather Condition 9.4 Prestressed Concrete 9.5 Proportioning of Concrete Mixes 9.5.1 Types of Mixes 9.5.2 Mix Proportion Designations 9.5.3 Methods of Proportioning Concrete 9.5.3.1 Arbitrary Method 9.5.3.2 Fineness Modulus Method 9.5.3.3 Minimum Void Method 9.5.3.4 Maximum Density Method 9.5.3.5 W/C Ratio Method 9.6 Production of Concrete 9.6.1 Manufacturing Process 9.6.2 Transport to Work Site 9.6.3 Placing and Compacting 9.6.4 Curing 9.6.5 Quality Control 9.7 Underwater Concreting 9.8 Concreting under Extreme Climatic Conditions 9.8.1 Hot Weather Concreting 9.8.2 Cold Weather Concreting 9.9 Special Concretes and High Performance Concretes 9.9.1 Light Weight Concrete 9.9.2 Aerated Concrete 9.9.3 High-Density Concrete 9.9.4 Mass Concrete 9.9.5 Ready-Mix Concrete 9.9.6 Polymer Concrete 9.9.6.1 Polymer-Impregnated Concrete 9.9.6.2 Polymer Cement Concrete 9.9.6.3 Polymer Concrete 9.9.7 Shotcrete 9.9.8 Prepacked Concrete 9.9.9 Vacuum Concrete 9.9.10 Pumped Concrete 9.9.11 High-Performance Concrete Chapter 10 Reinforced Concrete Structures 10.1 Fundamentals of Reinforced Concrete 10.1.1 Design Philosophies for Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures 10.1.2 Basic Definitions 10.2 Design of Singly Reinforced Sections 10.2.1 Limiting Depth of Neutral Axis 10.2.2 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections 10.2.2.1 Concrete Stress Block in Compression 10.2.2.2 Depth of Neutral Axis 10.2.2.3 Ultimate Moment of Resistance 10.2.2.4 Limiting Moment of Resistance 10.2.2.5 Safety at Ultimate Limit State in Flexure 10.2.3 Modes of Failure: Types of Section 10.2.4 Computation of Moment of Resistance 10.2.5 Design Type of Problems 10.3 Design of Doubly Reinforced Sections 10.3.1 Basic Principle 10.3.2 Determination of f[sub(sc)] and f[sub(cc)] 10.3.3 Minimum and Maximum Steel 10.3.4 Types of Problems and Steps of Solution 10.4 Shear in Reinforced Concrete 10.4.1 Modes of Failure 10.4.2 Shear Stress 10.4.3 Design Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete 10.4.4 Critical Section for Shear 10.4.5 Enhanced Shear Strength of Sections Close to Supports 10.4.6 Minimum Shear Reinforcement 10.4.7 Design of Shear Reinforcement 10.4.8 Shear Reinforcement for Sections Close to Supports 10.5 Bond, Development Length, and Splicing of Reinforcement 10.5.1 Design Bond Stress τ[sub(bd)] 10.5.2 Development Length 10.5.3 Checking of Development Lengths of Bars in Tension 10.5.4 Reinforcement Splicing 10.6 Continuous Beams 10.6.1 Analysis of Continuous Beam 10.7 Torsion in Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) Elements 10.7.1 Analysis for Torsional Moment in a Member 10.7.2 Approach of Design for Combined Bending, Shear and Torsion 10.7.3 Critical Section 10.7.4 Shear and Torsion 10.7.5 Reinforcement in Members Subjected to Torsion 10.7.6 Requirement of Reinforcement Chapter 11 Steel Structures 11.1 Steel as a Structural Material 11.2 Plastic Analysis and Design 11.2.1 Basics of Plastic Analysis 11.2.2 Principles of Plastic Analysis 11.2.2.1 Collapse Mechanisms 11.2.2.2 Combined Mechanism 11.2.2.3 Number of Independent Mechanisms 11.2.2.4 Theorems of Plastic Analysis 11.2.2.5 Methods of Plastic Analysis 11.3 Introduction to Limit State Design 11.3.1 Limit State of Strength 11.3.2 Limit State of Serviceability 11.3.3 Partial Safety Factors 11.3.4 Design Criteria 11.4 Simple Connections—Riveted, Bolted, and Pinned Connections 11.4.1 Riveted Connections 11.4.1.1 Types of Rivet Joints 11.4.2 Bolted Connections 11.4.2.1 Types of Bolts 11.4.2.2 Types of Bolted Joints 11.4.2.3 Bearing-Type Connections 11.4.2.4 Slip-Critical Connection 11.4.3 Pin Connections 11.4.3.1 Shear Capacity 11.4.3.2 Bearing Capacity 11.4.3.3 Flexural Capacity 11.4.4 Simple Welded Connections 11.4.4.1 Types of Welds 11.4.4.2 Weld Symbols 11.4.4.3 Welding Process 11.4.4.4 Weld Defects 11.4.4.5 Inspection of Welds 11.4.5 Design of Welds 11.4.5.1 Design of Butt Welds 11.4.5.2 Design of Fillet Welds 11.4.5.3 Design of Plug and Slot Welds 11.5 Tension Members 11.5.1 Types of Tension Members 11.5.2 Net Cross Sectional Area 11.5.3 Design of Tension Members 11.5.3.1 Design Strength Due to Yielding 11.5.3.2 Design Strength Due to Rupture 11.5.3.3 Design Strength Due to Block Shear 11.5.4 Lug Angles 11.6 Compression Members 11.6.1 Euler’s Buckling Theory 11.6.2 Types of Sections 11.6.3 Strength of Axially Loaded Compression Members 11.6.4 Effective Length of Compression Member 11.6.5 Maximum Slenderness Ratio 11.6.6 Angle Struts 11.6.7 Compression Members Composed of Back-to-Back Components 11.6.8 Lacings and Battens for Built-Up Compression Members 11.6.8.1 Lacings 11.6.8.2 Battens 11.7 Beams 11.7.1 Behavior of Steel Beams 11.7.1.1 Bending (Flexure) 11.7.1.2 Shear 11.7.1.3 Bearing 11.7.1.4 Deflection 11.7.1.5 Other Beam Failure Criteria 11.7.2 Laterally Supported Beam 11.7.2.1 Holes in the Tension Zone 11.7.2.2 Shear Lag Effects 11.7.2.3 Biaxial Bending 11.7.3 Laterally Unsupported Beams 11.7.3.1 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of Beams 11.7.3.2 Design Bending Strength 11.7.3.3 Effective Length of Compression Flanges 11.8 Members under Combined Axial Load and Moment 11.8.1 General 11.8.2 Local Capacity Check 11.8.3 Members Subjected to Combined Bending and Axial Forces 11.8.4 Overall Member Strength Check 11.9 Column Bases and Caps 11.9.1 Slab Base 11.9.2 Gusset Plate 11.10 Plate Girder 11.10.1 Elements of Plate Girder 11.10.2 Design Component of Plate Girder 11.10.3 Self-Weight and Economic Depth 11.10.3.1 Moment of Inertia of the Whole Section 11.10.4 Design of Web Plate 11.10.5 Web Stiffeners 11.10.6 Design of Flange 11.10.7 Curtailment of Flange Plates 11.10.8 Web Splices 11.10.9 Flange Splices 11.10.10 Welded Plate Girder 11.10.10.1 Web 11.10.10.2 Flange 11.10.10.3 Economic Depth 11.10.10.4 Self-Weight of the Girder 11.10.10.5 Design of Flange 11.10.10.6 Welds Connecting Flange with Web 11.10.10.7 Design of Intermediate Stiffeners 11.10.10.8 Design of Bearing Stiffener 11.11 Roof Trusses 11.11.1 Components of a Roof Truss 11.11.2 Types of Roof Trusses 11.11.3 Geometry of the Roof Truss 11.11.4 Truss Member Sections 11.11.5 Types of Connections 11.11.6 Loads on Roof Trusses 11.11.7 Economical Spacing of Roof Trusses 11.11.8 Design of a Roof Truss Chapter 12 Fluid Mechanics 12.1 Pressure and Its Measurement 12.1.1 Pressure Terminology 12.1.2 Units of Pressure 12.1.3 Pascal’s Law 12.1.4 Measurement of Pressure 12.2 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Surfaces 12.2.1 General Submerged Plane 12.2.2 Horizontal Submerged Plane 12.2.3 Inclined Submerged Surface 12.2.4 Vertical Submerged Surface 12.2.5 Curved Submerged Surface 12.3 Buoyancy and Flotation 12.3.1 Conditions of Equilibrium of Floating and Submerged Bodies 12.3.1.1 Stability of a Submerged Body 12.3.1.2 Stability of Floating Body 12.4 Fluid Kinematics 12.4.1 Continuity Equation 12.4.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration 12.4.1.2 Velocity Potential Function 12.4.1.3 Stream Function 12.4.2 Types of Flow 12.4.2.1 Eularian and Lagrangian Flow 12.4.2.2 Steady vs. Unsteady Flow 12.4.3 Streamlines, Streaklines, Pathlines 12.4.3.1 Streamline 12.4.3.2 Stream Tube 12.4.3.3 Pathline 12.4.3.4 Streakline 12.4.3.5 Timeline 12.4.4 Free and Forced Vortex Flow 12.4.4.1 Free Vortex Flow 12.4.4.2 Forced Vortex Flow 12.5 Dimensional Analysis 12.5.1 Dimensions and Units 12.5.2 Dimensional Homogeneity 12.6 Model Analysis 12.6.1 Model 12.6.2 Type of Forces Acting on the Moving Fluid 12.6.3 Dimensionless Numbers 12.6.4 Dynamic Similarity 12.7 Fluid Dynamics 12.7.1 Euler’s Equation 12.7.2 Bernoulli’s Equation from Euler’s Equation 12.7.2.1 Bernoulli’s Equation for Real Fluid 12.8 Fluid Flow Measurements 12.8.1 Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation 12.8.1.1 Venturimeter 12.8.1.2 Nozzle 12.8.1.3 Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate 12.8.1.4 Pitot Tube 12.9 Flow through Pipes 12.9.1 Head Loss Due to Friction in the Pipe 12.9.1.1 Darcy’s Equation for Round Pipes 12.9.1.2 Darcy’s Equation for Noncircular Pipes 12.9.1.3 The Chezy Equation 12.9.1.4 Laminar Flow 12.9.1.5 Choice of Friction Factor f 12.9.1.6 Minor Energy (Head) Losses 12.10 Viscous Flow 12.10.1 Real Fluids 12.10.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 12.10.3 Pressure Loss Due to Friction in a Pipeline 12.10.4 Pressure Loss During Laminar Flow in a Pipe 12.11 Flow Past Immersed Bodies 12.11.1 Force Exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Body 12.11.1.1 Drag Force 12.11.1.2 Lift Force 12.11.1.3 Expressions for Drag and Lift 12.11.1.4 Pressure Drag and Friction Drag 12.11.1.5 Lifting Force 12.11.1.6 Drag Force 12.11.1.7 Thrust Power to Overcome Drag Force 12.11.2 Boundary Layer 12.11.2.1 Potential Flow or Irrotational Flow Region 12.11.2.2 Factors Affecting the Growth of Boundary Layers 12.11.2.3 Thicknesses of the Boundary Layer 12.12 Compressible Flow 12.12.1 Thermodynamic Relations 12.12.2 Mach Number Chapter 13 Engineering Hydrology 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Importance of Hydrology 13.1.2 Hydrological Cycle 13.1.2.1 Catchment or Descriptive Representation of Hydrological Cycle 13.1.3 Some Important Definitions 13.2 Precipitation 13.2.1 Forms of Precipitation 13.2.2 Necessary Conditions for Occurrence of Precipitation 13.2.3 Types of Precipitation 13.2.4 Water Budget Equation for a Catchment 13.2.5 Rain Gauging (Measurement of Rainfall) 13.2.5.1 Types of Recording or Automatic Rain Gauges 13.2.5.2 Factors Governing Selection of Site for Rain Gauge Stations 13.2.5.3 Optimum Number of Rain Gauges 13.2.6 Mean Precipitation over an Area 13.3 Abstraction from Precipitations 13.3.1 Interception 13.3.2 Depression Storage 13.3.3 Watershed Leakage 13.3.4 Evaporation 13.3.4.1 Dalton’s Law of Evaporation 13.3.4.2 Measurement of Evaporation 13.3.5 Transpiration and Evapotranspiration 13.3.5.1 Evapotranspiration or Consumptive Use of Water 13.3.6 Infiltration 13.3.6.1 Infiltration Capacity 13.3.6.2 Infiltration Rate 13.3.6.3 Infiltration Capacity Curve 13.3.6.4 Horton’s Equation 13.3.6.5 Field Measurement of Infiltration Rate 13.4 Stream Flow Measurement 13.4.1 Stage 13.4.2 Measurement of Velocity 13.4.3 Direct Method of Discharge Measurement 13.4.4 Indirect Method of Discharge Measurement 13.5 Runoff 13.5.1 Computation of Runoff 13.6 Hydrographs 13.6.1 Components of Hydrograph 13.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Flood or Storm Hydrograph 13.6.1.2 Time Parameters Used in Hydrograph Analysis 13.6.2 Base Flow Separation 13.6.2.1 Method 1: Straight-Line Method 13.6.2.2 Method 2: Two-Lines Method 13.6.2.3 Method 3: Curves Extension Method 13.6.3 Computation of Direct Runoff or Rainfall Excess from Storm Hydrograph 13.6.3.1 Procedure 13.6.4 Unit Hydrograph 13.6.4.1 Assumptions of Unit Hydrograph Theory 13.6.4.2 Uses of Unit Hydrograph 13.6.4.3 Limitations of Unit Hydrograph 13.7 Floods 13.7.1 Types of Flood 13.7.2 Estimation of Flood Peak 13.8 Flood Routing 13.8.1 Uses of Flood Routing 13.8.2 Types of Flood Routing 13.8.3 Factors Used in Flood Routing 13.8.4 Basic Equation Used in Flood Routing Chapter 14 Water Resources Engineering 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Need for Planning and Management 14.2 Water Resources Sustainability 14.2.1 Driving Forces and Pressures 14.2.2 State of Our Natural Water Resources 14.2.3 Impacts 14.2.4 Responses 14.2.5 The Benefits 14.3 Flow and Hydrostatic Forces 14.3.1 Definition of a Fluid 14.3.2 Bernoulli’s Equation 14. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Authors Chapter 1 Introduction to Civil Engineering 1.1 Scope of Civil Engineering 1.2 Responsibilities and Role of a Civil Engineer 1.3 History of Civil Engineering 1.4 Branches of Civil Engineering 1.4.1 Structural Engineering 1.4.2 Building Construction 1.4.3 Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering 1.4.4 Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering 1.4.5 Environmental Engineering 1.4.6 Transportation Engineering 1.4.7 Construction Technology and Management 1.4.8 Earthquake Engineering 1.4.9 Materials Engineering 1.4.10 Urban and Municipal Engineering 1.4.11 Town Planning 1.4.12 Coastal Engineering 1.4.13 Surveying 1.4.14 Photogrammetry and Mapping 1.4.15 Estimating and Costing 1.5 Civil Engineering for Infrastructure Development of a Country 1.6 Civil Engineering Structures 1.6.1 Building 1.6.2 Bridges 1.6.3 Dams 1.6.4 Roads 1.6.5 Runways 1.6.6 Railways 1.6.7 Water Tanks 1.6.8 Retaining Walls 1.6.9 Towers 1.6.10 Chimneys 1.6.11 Pipelines 1.6.12 Canals 1.7 Codes and Specifications 1.7.1 Functions of Codes 1.7.2 ASTM International 1.7.3 British Standards 1.7.4 Eurocodes 1.7.5 Australian Standards Chapter 2 Units, Measurements, and Symbols 2.1 Systems of Measurements 2.1.1 The C.G.S. System 2.1.2 The M.K.S. System 2.1.3 The F.P.S. System 2.2 The S.I. System 2.2.1 Fundamental Units 2.2.1.1 Meter 2.2.1.2 Kilogram 2.2.1.3 Second 2.2.2 Derived Units 2.3 Rules for SI Units 2.4 Measures of Length 2.5 Measures of Weights 2.6 Measures of Surface Area 2.7 Cubic Measures 2.8 Power, Work, Energy, and Heat 2.8.1 Unit of Heat 2.8.2 Unit of Force Chapter 3 Preliminary Mathematics 3.1 Mathematical Signs, Symbols, and Abbreviations 3.2 Mensuration 3.2.1 Mensuration of Areas 3.2.1.1 Circle 3.2.1.2 Square 3.2.1.3 Triangle 3.2.1.4 Semicircle 3.2.1.5 Arc of a Circle 3.2.1.6 Sector of a Circle 3.2.1.7 Segment of a Circle 3.2.1.8 Polygons 3.2.2 Mensuration of Volumes 3.2.2.1 Cube 3.2.2.2 Cuboid 3.2.2.3 Pyramid 3.2.2.4 Circular Cone 3.2.2.5 Wedge 3.2.2.6 Sphere 3.2.2.7 Hemisphere 3.2.2.8 Spherical Sector 3.2.2.9 Spherical Zone 3.2.2.10 Spherical Wedge 3.2.2.11 Hollow Sphere or Spherical Shell 3.2.2.12 Cylindrical Ring or Torus 3.3 Algebraic Formulae 3.3.1 Exponent Rules 3.3.2 Powers of Ten 3.3.3 Simple Algebra 3.3.4 Formulae for Abridged Multiplication 3.3.5 Quadratic Equations 3.3.6 Cubic Equations 3.4 Trigonometry 3.4.1 Trigonometric Functions 3.4.2 Trigonometric Relations 3.4.3 Functions of the Sum and Differences of Two Angles 3.4.4 Functions of 1⁄2 A 3.4.5 Functions of 2A 3.4.6 Products and Powers of Functions 3.4.7 Sums and Differences of Functions 3.4.8 Rule for the Change of Trigonometrical Ratios 3.5 Solution of Triangles 3.5.1 Relation between Angles and Sides of Plane Triangles 3.5.1.1 Law of Sines 3.5.1.2 Law of Cosines 3.6 Matrix 3.6.1 Transpose of a Matrix 3.6.2 Types of Matrix 3.6.2.1 Square Matrix 3.6.2.2 Rectangular Matrix 3.6.2.3 Null Matrix or Zero Matrix 3.6.2.4 Triangular Matrix 3.6.2.5 Diagonal Matrix 3.6.2.6 Scalar Matrix 3.6.2.7 Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix 3.6.2.8 Row Matrix 3.6.2.9 Column Matrix 3.6.2.10 Nilpotent Matrix 3.6.2.11 Symmetrical Matrix 3.6.2.12 Skew Symmetrical Matrix 3.6.2.13 Orthogonal Matrix 3.6.3 Submatrix 3.6.4 Determinant of a Matrix 3.6.5 Minor of a Matrix 3.6.6 Cofactor of a Matrix 3.6.7 Adjoint of a Matrix 3.6.8 Equality of Two Matrices 3.6.9 Matrix Operations 3.6.9.1 Matrix Addition 3.6.9.2 Matrix Multiplication 3.6.9.3 Inverse of a Matrix 3.7 Calculus 3.7.1 Limits 3.7.1.1 Functions of Single-Variable Limits 3.7.1.2 Right Hand and Left Hand Limits 3.7.1.3 Theorems on Limits 3.7.1.4 Some Useful Limits 3.7.1.5 L’Hospital’s Rule 3.7.2 Differentiability 3.7.2.1 Rules of Differentiation 3.7.2.2 Some Standard Derivatives 3.7.2.3 Differentiation by Substitution 3.7.2.4 Mean Value Theorems 3.7.2.5 Partial Derivatives 3.7.3 Integration 3.7.3.1 Some Standard Integrations 3.7.3.2 Definite Integral 3.7.3.3 Improper Integral 3.7.3.4 Multiple Integrals 3.7.3.5 Change of Order of Integration 3.7.3.6 Triple Integrals 3.7.4 Fourier Series 3.7.4.1 Dirichlet’s Condition 3.7.4.2 Fourier Series in the Interval (a, b) 3.7.5 Series 3.7.5.1 Sequences 3.7.5.2 Series 3.7.5.3 Series Tests 3.7.6 Vector 3.7.6.1 Unit Vector 3.7.6.2 Null Vector 3.7.6.3 Product of Two Vectors 3.7.6.4 Differentiation of Vector 3.7.6.5 Vector Calculus 3.7.6.6 Divergence 3.7.6.7 Curl 3.7.7 Line Integral 3.7.8 Surfaces 3.7.8.1 Smooth Surfaces 3.7.8.2 Orientable and Nonorientable Surfaces 3.7.8.3 Surface Integral 3.7.8.4 Flux across a Surface 3.7.9 Volume Integral 3.7.10 Stroke’s Theorem 3.7.11 Green Theorem 3.7.12 Gauss’s Divergence Theorem (Relation between Surface and Volume Integrals) Chapter 4 Engineering Mechanics 4.1 Statics of Particle: Forces on a Plane 4.1.1 Types of System of Forces 4.1.1.1 Coplanar Force System 4.1.1.2 Concurrent Force System 4.1.1.3 Collinear Force System 4.1.1.4 Parallel Force System 4.1.2 Resultant of Forces 4.1.2.1 Parallelogram Law of Forces 4.1.2.2 Triangle Law of Forces 4.1.2.3 Polygon Law of Forces 4.1.2.4 Resultant of Coplanar Concurrent Force Systems 4.1.3 Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces 4.1.3.1 Lami’s Theorem 4.1.3.2 Conditions for the Equilibrium of Coplanar Concurrent Force Systems 4.2 Moment of a Force 4.2.1 Varignon’s Theorem 4.3 Couple 4.4 Statics of Particle: Noncoplanar Concurrent Forces in Space 4.4.1 Resultant of Concurrent Force Systems in Space 4.4.2 Equilibrium of Concurrent Space Forces 4.5 Statics of Rigid Body: Nonconcurrent, Coplanar Forces on a Plane Rigid Body 4.5.1 Conditions of Equilibrium of Coplanar Nonconcurrent Force Systems 4.5.2 Free Body Diagram 4.5.3 Principle of Transmissibility 4.5.4 Principle of Superposition of Forces 4.6 Types of Supports 4.6.1 Roller Supports 4.6.2 Hinged Supports 4.6.3 Fixed Supports 4.6.4 Pinned Supports 4.7 Types of Beams 4.7.1 Simply Supported Beam 4.7.2 Fixed Beam 4.7.3 Cantilever Beam 4.7.4 Continuously Supported Beam 4.7.5 Overhanging Beams 4.8 Types of Loads 4.8.1 Point Loads 4.8.2 Uniformly Distributed Load 4.8.3 Uniformly Varying Load 4.8.4 Support Reactions 4.9 Friction 4.9.1 Static Friction 4.9.2 Kinetic Friction/Dynamic Friction 4.9.2.1 Sliding Friction 4.9.2.2 Rolling friction 4.9.3 Laws of Friction 4.9.3.1 Law 1 4.9.3.2 Law 2 4.9.3.3 Law 3 4.9.3.4 Law 4 4.9.3.5 Law 5 4.9.4 Coefficient of Friction 4.9.5 Calculation of Frictional Force on a Body 4.9.6 Angle of Friction 4.9.7 Angle of Repose 4.9.8 Cone of Friction 4.9.9 Wedge Friction 4.9.10 Ladder Friction 4.10 Properties of Surfaces and Solids 4.10.1 Center of Gravity 4.10.2 Centroid 4.10.3 Axis of Reference 4.10.4 Axis of Symmetry 4.10.5 CG of Solid Bodies 4.10.6 Centroid of Area 4.10.7 Theorems of Pappus–Guldinus 4.10.7.1 Theorem1 4.10.7.2 Theorem 2 4.10.8 Moment of Inertia 4.10.8.1 Radius of Gyration 4.10.8.2 Perpendicular Axis Theorem 4.10.8.3 Parallel Axis Theorem 4.10.8.4 Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas 4.10.9 Instantaneous Center 4.11 Kinetics of Particle 4.11.1 Work 4.11.1.1 Work Done by Friction Force 4.11.1.2 Work Done by a Spring 4.11.1.3 Work Done by Torque 4.11.1.4 Work Done by a Force on a Moving Body 4.11.1.5 Work Done by a Variable Force 4.11.2 Power 4.11.3 Energy 4.11.3.1 Potential Energy 4.11.3.2 Kinetic Energy 4.11.4 Work-Energy Principle 4.11.5 Impulse and Momentum 4.11.5.1 Law of Conservation of Momentum 4.11.6 Collision of Elastic Bodies 4.11.6.1 Newton’s Law of Collision of Elastic Bodies 4.11.7 Types of collision 4.11.7.1 Direct Collision of Two Bodies 4.11.7.2 Direct Impact of a Body with a Fixed Plane 4.11.7.3 Indirect Impact of Two Bodies 4.11.7.4 Indirect Impact of a Body with a Fixed Plane 4.12 Kinematics of a Particle 4.12.1 Plane Motion 4.12.1.1 Translation 4.12.1.2 Rotation 4.12.1.3 General Plane Motion 4.12.2 Kinetics of Rigid Bodies under Combined Translational and Rotational Motion 4.12.3 Principle of Conservation of Energy Chapter 5 Mechanics of Structures and Their Analysis 5.1 Simple Stress 5.1.1 Introduction 5.1.2 Stress 5.1.3 Stress on an Oblique Plane Due to Axial Loading 5.2 Simple Strain 5.2.1 Stress–Strain Diagram 5.2.1.1 Proportional Limit 5.2.1.2 Elastic Limit 5.2.1.3 Elastic and Plastic Ranges 5.2.1.4 Yield Point 5.2.1.5 Ultimate Strength 5.2.1.6 Rupture Strength 5.2.1.7 Modulus of Resilience 5.2.1.8 Modulus of Toughness 5.2.2 Axial Deformation 5.2.3 Shearing Deformation 5.2.4 Poisson’s Ratio 5.2.5 Biaxial Deformation 5.2.6 Triaxial Deformation 5.2.7 Thermal Stress 5.3 Statically Determinate Members 5.3.1 Determinacy and Stability 5.3.2 Statically Indeterminate Members 5.3.3 Truss Structures 5.4 Relationship between Elastic Constants 5.5 Principal Planes and Principal Stresses 5.5.1 Principal Axis 5.5.2 Maximum and Minimum Normal Stress 5.5.3 Maximum Shear Stress 5.6 Mohr’s Circle Method 5.6.1 Equation of the Mohr Circle 5.7 Combined Stresses 5.7.1 Stresses Developed through Axial Load Combinations and Bending Moments 5.7.2 Direct Shear in Association with Torsion 5.7.3 Stresses Produced Due to Combined Action of Bending and Torsion 5.8 Physical Properties of Materials and Their Measuring Parameters 5.8.1 Brittleness 5.8.2 Ductility 5.8.3 Elasticity 5.8.4 Hardness 5.8.5 Malleability 5.8.6 Modulus of Resilience 5.8.7 Plasticity 5.8.8 Proof Resilience 5.8.9 Relative Density 5.8.10 Resilience 5.8.11 Secant Modulus 5.8.12 Specific Modulus of Elasticity 5.8.13 Stiffness 5.8.14 Tenacity 5.8.15 Toughness 5.9 Shear Forces and Bending Moments 5.9.1 Transverse Loading 5.9.2 Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) 5.9.3 Sign Convention 5.9.4 SFD and BMD for Different Cantilever and Simply Supported Beams 5.9.5 Relation between Load, Shear, and Bending Moment 5.10 Bending Stresses in Beams 5.10.1 Assumptions in the Theory of Simple Bending 5.10.2 Theory of Simple Bending 5.10.3 Position of Neutral Axis 5.10.4 Moment of Resistance 5.10.5 Section Modulus 5.11 Shearing Stresses in Beams 5.11.1 Shear Flow 5.11.2 Built-Up Beams 5.12 Deeflctions 5.12.1 Correlation between Slope, Deflection, and Radius of Curvature 5.12.2 Moment Area Method 5.12.2.1 Sign Rules 5.12.3 Conjugate Beam Method 5.13 Indeterminate Structures 5.13.1 Force Method 5.13.2 Displacement Method 5.14 Fixed Beams 5.14.1 Method of Superposition 5.14.2 Double Integration Method 5.14.3 Moment Area Method 5.14.3.1 Mohr’s First Theorem (Mohr I) 5.14.3.2 Mohr’s Second Theorem (Mohr II) 5.15 Continuous Beams 5.15.1 Three-Moment Theorem 5.16 Torsion 5.16.1 Terms Related to Torsion 5.16.1.1 Torsional Shearing Stress (τ) 5.16.1.2 Angle of Twist 5.16.1.3 Power Transmitted by the Shaft 5.16.1.4 Equivalent Torque 5.16.2 Composite Shafts 5.16.2.1 Composite Shafts in Series 5.16.2.2 Composite Shafts in Parallel 5.16.3 Shaft Couplings 5.17 Thin Cylinders 5.17.1 Failure of Thin Cylinders 5.17.2 Applications of Thin Cylinders 5.17.3 Thin Cylinders Subjected to Internal Pressure 5.17.3.1 Hoop Stress on Thin Cylinders 5.17.3.2 Radial Stress on Thin Cylinders 5.17.3.3 Longitudinal Stress on Thin cylinders 5.18 Thick Cylinders 5.19 Columns and Struts 5.19.1 Euler’s Theorem of Columns 5.20 Springs 5.20.1 Closed Coiled Helical Springs 5.20.1.1 Under Axial Load, W 5.20.1.2 Under Axial Torque Load,T 5.20.2 Open Coiled Helical Spring 5.21 Strain Energy Chapter 6 Principles of Surveying 6.1 Basic Principles of Surveying 6.1.1 Objectives of Surveying 6.1.2 Need of Surveying 6.1.3 General Principle of Surveying 6.1.4 Scales 6.1.4.1 Plain Scale 6.1.4.2 Diagonal Scale 6.1.4.3 Vernier Scale 6.1.4.4 Scale of Chords 6.2 Classification of Surveying 6.2.1 Primary Classification 6.2.1.1 Plane Surveying 6.2.1.2 Geodetic Surveying 6.2.2 Secondary Classification 6.3 Values of a Quantity 6.3.1 True Value of a Quantity 6.3.2 Observed Value of a Quantity 6.3.3 Most Probable Value of a Quantity 6.3.4 Principle of Least Square 6.4 Errors 6.4.1 Sources of Errors 6.4.1.1 Instrumental Errors 6.4.1.2 Personal Errors 6.4.1.3 Natural Errors 6.4.2 Types of Surveying Errors 6.4.2.1 Mistakes 6.4.2.2 Accidental Errors 6.4.2.3 Systematic or Cumulative Errors 6.4.2.4 Compensating Errors 6.4.3 Most Probable Error 6.5 Vertical Control 6.6 Measurement of Distance 6.6.1 Methods of Linear Surveying 6.6.1.1 Direct Measurement 6.6.1.2 Measurement by Optical Means 6.6.1.3 Electronic Method 6.7 Contouring 6.7.1 Terms related to Contouring 6.7.2 Characteristics of Contours 6.8 Traverse Surveying 6.8.1 Procedure for Traverse Calculations 6.8.1.1 Balancing Angles of Closed Traverses 6.8.1.2 Closure of Latitudes and Departures 6.9 Hydrographic Surveying 6.9.1 Horizontal Controls 6.9.2 Vertical Controls 6.9.3 Sounding and the Methods Employed in Sounding 6.9.3.1 Sounding Boat 6.9.3.2 Fathometer 6.10 Curves 6.10.1 Simple Curve 6.10.1.1 Elements of a Simple Curve 6.10.1.2 Methods of Setting Out of Single Circular Curve 6.10.2 Compound Curve 6.10.3 Transition Curves 6.10.3.1 Requirement of Transition Curve 6.11 Earthworks 6.11.1 Computation of Areas 6.11.1.1 Areas of Skeleton 6.11.1.2 Considering the Area along Boundaries 6.11.2 Computation of Volume 6.11.2.1 Method of Cross Sections 6.11.2.2 Trapezoidal Formula 6.11.2.3 Prismoidal Formula 6.11.3 Methods of Contours for Volume Computation 6.11.4 Prismoidal Correction for Volume 6.11.5 Curvature Correction for Volumes 6.11.5.1 Equivalent Areas 6.11.5.2 Pappus Theorem 6.12 Geodetic Surveying 6.12.1 Triangulation 6.12.1.1 Objectives of Triangulation 6.12.1.2 Classification of Triangulation System 6.12.2 Curvature and Refraction 6.12.3 Intervisibility and Height of Stations 6.12.3.1 Distance between Stations 6.12.3.2 Relative Elevations of Stations 6.13 Photogrammetry 6.13.1 Terrestrial Photogrammetry 6.13.2 Aerial Photogrammetry 6.13.3 Orthophotos 6.14 Modern Surveying Equipment 6.14.1 EDM Instruments 6.14.1.1 Infrared Wave Instruments 6.14.1.2 Light Wave Instruments 6.14.1.3 Microwave Instruments 6.14.2 Total Station 6.14.3 Automatic Level 6.15 Modern Surveying Methods 6.15.1 Remote Sensing 6.15.2 Geographical Information System 6.15.3 Global Positioning System 6.15.3.1 GPS Baseline 6.15.3.2 Kinematic GPS 6.15.3.3 Continuously Operating Reference Stations 6.15.3.4 Heights from GPS Chapter 7 Building Materials 7.1 Principal Properties of Building Materials 7.1.1 Physical Characters 7.1.2 Mechanical Properties 7.2 Structural Clay Products 7.2.1 Properties 7.3 Rocks and Stones 7.3.1 Requirements of Good Building Stones 7.3.2 Tests on Stones 7.3.3 Common Building Stones 7.4 Wood and Wood Products 7.4.1 Problems of Using Wood as a Building Material 7.4.2 Minimizing the Problems of Wood 7.4.3 Seasoning of Timber 7.5 Materials for Making Concrete 7.5.1 Materials Used in RCC Work 7.5.2 Types of Concrete 7.6 Mortars 7.6.1 Properties of a Good Mortar 7.6.2 Preparation of Cement Mortar 7.6.3 Precautions in Using Mortar 7.6.4 Tests for Mortar 7.7 Paints, Enamels, Varnishes 7.7.1 Painting 7.7.2 Characteristics of an Ideal Paint 7.7.3 Pigment Volume Concentration Number (PVCN) 7.7.4 Components of Paint 7.7.5 Types of Paint 7.7.6 Defects in Painting 7.7.7 Varnish 7.7.8 The Qualities of a Good Varnish 7.7.9 Distempering 7.7.9.1 Properties 7.7.10 Ingredients of a Distemper 7.8 Tar, Bitumen, Asphalt 7.8.1 Tar 7.8.2 Bitumen 7.8.3 Forms of Bitumen 7.8.4 Properties of Bituminous Materials 7.8.5 Asphalt 7.8.6 Forms of Asphalt 7.9 Miscellaneous Materials 7.9.1 Abrasives 7.9.2 Adhesives 7.9.3 Asbestos 7.9.4 Cork 7.9.5 Fly Ash 7.9.6 Gypsum 7.10 Metals and Alloys 7.10.1 Ferrous Metals 7.10.2 Nonferrous Metals 7.10.3 Other Brass Alloys 7.10.4 Other Bronze Alloys 7.11 Ceramic Materials 7.12 Polymeric Materials 7.12.1 Characteristics of Polymers 7.13 Polymer Fiber Composites 7.14 Geosynthetics 7.15 Soil Stabilizers 7.15.1 Stabilizing Agents 7.16 Sustainable Construction Materials Chapter 8 Building Construction Technology and Management 8.1 Basics of Construction Technology 8.1.1 What is Construction Technology? 8.1.2 Scope of Construction Technology and Management 8.1.3 Impact of Construction Technology 8.1.3.1 Positive Construction Impact for a Worker 8.1.3.2 Positive Impact on Surroundings 8.1.3.3 Positive Impact on the Country 8.1.3.4 Negative Impact of Construction for a Worker 8.1.3.5 Impact on Environment: Cutting of Trees 8.1.3.6 Wrapping Up 8.2 Planning for and Controlling Construction 8.2.1 Community Development 8.2.2 Managing Community Development 8.2.3 The Role of Management 8.2.4 Teamwork 8.2.5 Accountability 8.3 Construction Safety 8.3.1 Safety Importance 8.3.2 Designing for Safety 8.3.3 Role of Various Parties in Designing for Safety 8.4 The Construction Process 8.4.1 Initiating the Project 8.4.2 Designing the Project 8.4.3 Design Methodology 8.4.4 Functional Design 8.4.5 Preliminary Design 8.4.6 Design Development 8.4.7 Construction Documents and Bidding 8.4.8 Types of Contractors 8.4.9 Types of Contracts 8.4.10 Managing Construction Projects 8.4.11 Preparing the Site 8.4.12 Geotechnical Report Related to Site Soil Properties 8.4.13 Construction Site Clearing and Excavation 8.4.14 Grading of Construction Project Site 8.4.15 Building the Project 8.4.16 Completing the Final Inspection 8.4.17 Closing the Contract 8.5 Construction Tools and Equipment 8.5.1 Tools 8.5.2 Building Construction Equipment 8.6 Construction Scheduling 8.6.1 Purpose of Scheduling 8.6.2 Methods of Scheduling 8.6.3 Scheduling Workers 8.6.4 Obtaining Materials 8.6.5 Obtaining Equipment 8.6.6 Obtaining Permits 8.7 Beginning Construction 8.7.1 Site Preparation 8.7.1.1 Establishing Site Preparation 8.7.1.2 Providing Access to Site 8.7.1.3 Clearing the Site 8.7.1.4 Locating a Structure 8.7.1.5 Locating Temporary Buildings 8.7.1.6 Securing the Site 8.7.2 Earthwork and Foundation 8.7.3 Damp Proofing of Foundation Walls 8.7.4 Building the Super Structure 8.7.4.1 Floor 8.7.4.2 Walls 8.7.4.3 Roof and Ceiling Framing 8.7.4.4 Installing Fascia and Sheathing 8.8 Installation of Plumbing and Sanitary Fittings 8.8.1 Plumbing Systems 8.8.1.1 Piping System 8.8.1.2 Materials for Residential and Light Commercial Piping System 8.8.2 Sanitary Fittings 8.9 Installation of HVAC and Communication Systems 8.9.1 Temperature Control 8.9.2 Humidity Control 8.9.3 Cleaning Air 8.10 Electrical Power System 8.11 Landscaping Chapter 9 Concrete Technology 9.1 Fresh Concrete 9.1.1 Properties of Fresh Concrete 9.1.1.1 Consistency 9.1.1.2 Setting of Concrete 9.1.1.3 Workability 9.1.1.4 Bleeding and Segregation in Concrete 9.1.1.5 Hydration in Concrete 9.1.1.6 Air Entrainment 9.2 Rheology of Concrete 9.3 Hardened Concrete 9.3.1 Properties of Hardened Concrete 9.3.1.1 Strength 9.3.1.2 Creep 9.3.1.3 Durability 9.3.1.4 Shrinkage 9.3.1.5 Modulus of Elasticity 9.3.1.6 Water Tightness 9.3.2 Factors Affecting Properties of Hardened Concrete 9.3.2.1 W/C Ratio 9.3.2.2 Type and Amount of Cement 9.3.2.3 Type and Amount of Aggregate 9.3.2.4 Weather Condition 9.4 Prestressed Concrete 9.5 Proportioning of Concrete Mixes 9.5.1 Types of Mixes 9.5.2 Mix Proportion Designations 9.5.3 Methods of Proportioning Concrete 9.5.3.1 Arbitrary Method 9.5.3.2 Fineness Modulus Method 9.5.3.3 Minimum Void Method 9.5.3.4 Maximum Density Method 9.5.3.5 W/C Ratio Method 9.6 Production of Concrete 9.6.1 Manufacturing Process 9.6.2 Transport to Work Site 9.6.3 Placing and Compacting 9.6.4 Curing 9.6.5 Quality Control 9.7 Underwater Concreting 9.8 Concreting under Extreme Climatic Conditions 9.8.1 Hot Weather Concreting 9.8.2 Cold Weather Concreting 9.9 Special Concretes and High Performance Concretes 9.9.1 Light Weight Concrete 9.9.2 Aerated Concrete 9.9.3 High-Density Concrete 9.9.4 Mass Concrete 9.9.5 Ready-Mix Concrete 9.9.6 Polymer Concrete 9.9.6.1 Polymer-Impregnated Concrete 9.9.6.2 Polymer Cement Concrete 9.9.6.3 Polymer Concrete 9.9.7 Shotcrete 9.9.8 Prepacked Concrete 9.9.9 Vacuum Concrete 9.9.10 Pumped Concrete 9.9.11 High-Performance Concrete Chapter 10 Reinforced Concrete Structures 10.1 Fundamentals of Reinforced Concrete 10.1.1 Design Philosophies for Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures 10.1.2 Basic Definitions 10.2 Design of Singly Reinforced Sections 10.2.1 Limiting Depth of Neutral Axis 10.2.2 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections 10.2.2.1 Concrete Stress Block in Compression 10.2.2.2 Depth of Neutral Axis 10.2.2.3 Ultimate Moment of Resistance 10.2.2.4 Limiting Moment of Resistance 10.2.2.5 Safety at Ultimate Limit State in Flexure 10.2.3 Modes of Failure: Types of Section 10.2.4 Computation of Moment of Resistance 10.2.5 Design Type of Problems 10.3 Design of Doubly Reinforced Sections 10.3.1 Basic Principle 10.3.2 Determination of f[sub(sc)] and f[sub(cc)] 10.3.3 Minimum and Maximum Steel 10.3.4 Types of Problems and Steps of Solution 10.4 Shear in Reinforced Concrete 10.4.1 Modes of Failure 10.4.2 Shear Stress 10.4.3 Design Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete 10.4.4 Critical Section for Shear 10.4.5 Enhanced Shear Strength of Sections Close to Supports 10.4.6 Minimum Shear Reinforcement 10.4.7 Design of Shear Reinforcement 10.4.8 Shear Reinforcement for Sections Close to Supports 10.5 Bond, Development Length, and Splicing of Reinforcement 10.5.1 Design Bond Stress τ[sub(bd)] 10.5.2 Development Length 10.5.3 Checking of Development Lengths of Bars in Tension 10.5.4 Reinforcement Splicing 10.6 Continuous Beams 10.6.1 Analysis of Continuous Beam 10.7 Torsion in Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) Elements 10.7.1 Analysis for Torsional Moment in a Member 10.7.2 Approach of Design for Combined Bending, Shear and Torsion 10.7.3 Critical Section 10.7.4 Shear and Torsion 10.7.5 Reinforcement in Members Subjected to Torsion 10.7.6 Requirement of Reinforcement Chapter 11 Steel Structures 11.1 Steel as a Structural Material 11.2 Plastic Analysis and Design 11.2.1 Basics of Plastic Analysis 11.2.2 Principles of Plastic Analysis 11.2.2.1 Collapse Mechanisms 11.2.2.2 Combined Mechanism 11.2.2.3 Number of Independent Mechanisms 11.2.2.4 Theorems of Plastic Analysis 11.2.2.5 Methods of Plastic Analysis 11.3 Introduction to Limit State Design 11.3.1 Limit State of Strength 11.3.2 Limit State of Serviceability 11.3.3 Partial Safety Factors 11.3.4 Design Criteria 11.4 Simple Connections—Riveted, Bolted, and Pinned Connections 11.4.1 Riveted Connections 11.4.1.1 Types of Rivet Joints 11.4.2 Bolted Connections 11.4.2.1 Types of Bolts 11.4.2.2 Types of Bolted Joints 11.4.2.3 Bearing-Type Connections 11.4.2.4 Slip-Critical Connection 11.4.3 Pin Connections 11.4.3.1 Shear Capacity 11.4.3.2 Bearing Capacity 11.4.3.3 Flexural Capacity 11.4.4 Simple Welded Connections 11.4.4.1 Types of Welds 11.4.4.2 Weld Symbols 11.4.4.3 Welding Process 11.4.4.4 Weld Defects 11.4.4.5 Inspection of Welds 11.4.5 Design of Welds 11.4.5.1 Design of Butt Welds 11.4.5.2 Design of Fillet Welds 11.4.5.3 Design of Plug and Slot Welds 11.5 Tension Members 11.5.1 Types of Tension Members 11.5.2 Net Cross Sectional Area 11.5.3 Design of Tension Members 11.5.3.1 Design Strength Due to Yielding 11.5.3.2 Design Strength Due to Rupture 11.5.3.3 Design Strength Due to Block Shear 11.5.4 Lug Angles 11.6 Compression Members 11.6.1 Euler’s Buckling Theory 11.6.2 Types of Sections 11.6.3 Strength of Axially Loaded Compression Members 11.6.4 Effective Length of Compression Member 11.6.5 Maximum Slenderness Ratio 11.6.6 Angle Struts 11.6.7 Compression Members Composed of Back-to-Back Components 11.6.8 Lacings and Battens for Built-Up Compression Members 11.6.8.1 Lacings 11.6.8.2 Battens 11.7 Beams 11.7.1 Behavior of Steel Beams 11.7.1.1 Bending (Flexure) 11.7.1.2 Shear 11.7.1.3 Bearing 11.7.1.4 Deflection 11.7.1.5 Other Beam Failure Criteria 11.7.2 Laterally Supported Beam 11.7.2.1 Holes in the Tension Zone 11.7.2.2 Shear Lag Effects 11.7.2.3 Biaxial Bending 11.7.3 Laterally Unsupported Beams 11.7.3.1 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of Beams 11.7.3.2 Design Bending Strength 11.7.3.3 Effective Length of Compression Flanges 11.8 Members under Combined Axial Load and Moment 11.8.1 General 11.8.2 Local Capacity Check 11.8.3 Members Subjected to Combined Bending and Axial Forces 11.8.4 Overall Member Strength Check 11.9 Column Bases and Caps 11.9.1 Slab Base 11.9.2 Gusset Plate 11.10 Plate Girder 11.10.1 Elements of Plate Girder 11.10.2 Design Component of Plate Girder 11.10.3 Self-Weight and Economic Depth 11.10.3.1 Moment of Inertia of the Whole Section 11.10.4 Design of Web Plate 11.10.5 Web Stiffeners 11.10.6 Design of Flange 11.10.7 Curtailment of Flange Plates 11.10.8 Web Splices 11.10.9 Flange Splices 11.10.10 Welded Plate Girder 11.10.10.1 Web 11.10.10.2 Flange 11.10.10.3 Economic Depth 11.10.10.4 Self-Weight of the Girder 11.10.10.5 Design of Flange 11.10.10.6 Welds Connecting Flange with Web 11.10.10.7 Design of Intermediate Stiffeners 11.10.10.8 Design of Bearing Stiffener 11.11 Roof Trusses 11.11.1 Components of a Roof Truss 11.11.2 Types of Roof Trusses 11.11.3 Geometry of the Roof Truss 11.11.4 Truss Member Sections 11.11.5 Types of Connections 11.11.6 Loads on Roof Trusses 11.11.7 Economical Spacing of Roof Trusses 11.11.8 Design of a Roof Truss Chapter 12 Fluid Mechanics 12.1 Pressure and Its Measurement 12.1.1 Pressure Terminology 12.1.2 Units of Pressure 12.1.3 Pascal’s Law 12.1.4 Measurement of Pressure 12.2 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Surfaces 12.2.1 General Submerged Plane 12.2.2 Horizontal Submerged Plane 12.2.3 Inclined Submerged Surface 12.2.4 Vertical Submerged Surface 12.2.5 Curved Submerged Surface 12.3 Buoyancy and Flotation 12.3.1 Conditions of Equilibrium of Floating and Submerged Bodies 12.3.1.1 Stability of a Submerged Body 12.3.1.2 Stability of Floating Body 12.4 Fluid Kinematics 12.4.1 Continuity Equation 12.4.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration 12.4.1.2 Velocity Potential Function 12.4.1.3 Stream Function 12.4.2 Types of Flow 12.4.2.1 Eularian and Lagrangian Flow 12.4.2.2 Steady vs. Unsteady Flow 12.4.3 Streamlines, Streaklines, Pathlines 12.4.3.1 Streamline 12.4.3.2 Stream Tube 12.4.3.3 Pathline 12.4.3.4 Streakline 12.4.3.5 Timeline 12.4.4 Free and Forced Vortex Flow 12.4.4.1 Free Vortex Flow 12.4.4.2 Forced Vortex Flow 12.5 Dimensional Analysis 12.5.1 Dimensions and Units 12.5.2 Dimensional Homogeneity 12.6 Model Analysis 12.6.1 Model 12.6.2 Type of Forces Acting on the Moving Fluid 12.6.3 Dimensionless Numbers 12.6.4 Dynamic Similarity 12.7 Fluid Dynamics 12.7.1 Euler’s Equation 12.7.2 Bernoulli’s Equation from Euler’s Equation 12.7.2.1 Bernoulli’s Equation for Real Fluid 12.8 Fluid Flow Measurements 12.8.1 Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation 12.8.1.1 Venturimeter 12.8.1.2 Nozzle 12.8.1.3 Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate 12.8.1.4 Pitot Tube 12.9 Flow through Pipes 12.9.1 Head Loss Due to Friction in the Pipe 12.9.1.1 Darcy’s Equation for Round Pipes 12.9.1.2 Darcy’s Equation for Noncircular Pipes 12.9.1.3 The Chezy Equation 12.9.1.4 Laminar Flow 12.9.1.5 Choice of Friction Factor f 12.9.1.6 Minor Energy (Head) Losses 12.10 Viscous Flow 12.10.1 Real Fluids 12.10.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 12.10.3 Pressure Loss Due to Friction in a Pipeline 12.10.4 Pressure Loss During Laminar Flow in a Pipe 12.11 Flow Past Immersed Bodies 12.11.1 Force Exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Body 12.11.1.1 Drag Force 12.11.1.2 Lift Force 12.11.1.3 Expressions for Drag and Lift 12.11.1.4 Pressure Drag and Friction Drag 12.11.1.5 Lifting Force 12.11.1.6 Drag Force 12.11.1.7 Thrust Power to Overcome Drag Force 12.11.2 Boundary Layer 12.11.2.1 Potential Flow or Irrotational Flow Region 12.11.2.2 Factors Affecting the Growth of Boundary Layers 12.11.2.3 Thicknesses of the Boundary Layer 12.12 Compressible Flow 12.12.1 Thermodynamic Relations 12.12.2 Mach Number Chapter 13 Engineering Hydrology 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Importance of Hydrology 13.1.2 Hydrological Cycle 13.1.2.1 Catchment or Descriptive Representation of Hydrological Cycle 13.1.3 Some Important Definitions 13.2 Precipitation 13.2.1 Forms of Precipitation 13.2.2 Necessary Conditions for Occurrence of Precipitation 13.2.3 Types of Precipitation 13.2.4 Water Budget Equation for a Catchment 13.2.5 Rain Gauging (Measurement of Rainfall) 13.2.5.1 Types of Recording or Automatic Rain Gauges 13.2.5.2 Factors Governing Selection of Site for Rain Gauge Stations 13.2.5.3 Optimum Number of Rain Gauges 13.2.6 Mean Precipitation over an Area 13.3 Abstraction from Precipitations 13.3.1 Interception 13.3.2 Depression Storage 13.3.3 Watershed Leakage 13.3.4 Evaporation 13.3.4.1 Dalton’s Law of Evaporation 13.3.4.2 Measurement of Evaporation 13.3.5 Transpiration and Evapotranspiration 13.3.5.1 Evapotranspiration or Consumptive Use of Water 13.3.6 Infiltration 13.3.6.1 Infiltration Capacity 13.3.6.2 Infiltration Rate 13.3.6.3 Infiltration Capacity Curve 13.3.6.4 Horton’s Equation 13.3.6.5 Field Measurement of Infiltration Rate 13.4 Stream Flow Measurement 13.4.1 Stage 13.4.2 Measurement of Velocity 13.4.3 Direct Method of Discharge Measurement 13.4.4 Indirect Method of Discharge Measurement 13.5 Runoff 13.5.1 Computation of Runoff 13.6 Hydrographs 13.6.1 Components of Hydrograph 13.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Flood or Storm Hydrograph 13.6.1.2 Time Parameters Used in Hydrograph Analysis 13.6.2 Base Flow Separation 13.6.2.1 Method 1: Straight-Line Method 13.6.2.2 Method 2: Two-Lines Method 13.6.2.3 Method 3: Curves Extension Method 13.6.3 Computation of Direct Runoff or Rainfall Excess from Storm Hydrograph 13.6.3.1 Procedure 13.6.4 Unit Hydrograph 13.6.4.1 Assumptions of Unit Hydrograph Theory 13.6.4.2 Uses of Unit Hydrograph 13.6.4.3 Limitations of Unit Hydrograph 13.7 Floods 13.7.1 Types of Flood 13.7.2 Estimation of Flood Peak 13.8 Flood Routing 13.8.1 Uses of Flood Routing 13.8.2 Types of Flood Routing 13.8.3 Factors Used in Flood Routing 13.8.4 Basic Equation Used in Flood Routing Chapter 14 Water Resources Engineering 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Need for Planning and Management 14.2 Water Resources Sustainability 14.2.1 Driving Forces and Pressures 14.2.2 State of Our Natural Water Resources 14.2.3 Impacts 14.2.4 Responses 14.2.5 The Benefits 14.3 Flow and Hydrostatic Forces 14.3.1 Definition of a Fluid 14.3.2 Bernoulli’s Equation 1