قدرت سوخت: چگونه اقتصاد هیدروژنی را تسریع کنیم

Power to Fuel: How to Speed Up a Hydrogen Economy highlights how the surplus of electricity from renewable sources can be usefully accumulated thanks to hydrogen overcoming the obstacles that can prevent the final use of hydrogen on a large scale. The book includes an introduction and sections on the production of hydrogen, conversion of hydrogen into synthetic fuel, the power-to-fuel concept, and renewable energy source descriptions. The second and third levels are structured identically with a standalone approach that covers established and commercial pathways, emerging pathways, and cost analysis sections within each subject specific chapter, making the content easily referenced and applied. Readers will find details on the state-of-the-art and emerging technologies of various power to fuels options suitable for different final uses of the stored energy, as well as figures and diagrams that illustrate and compare the different processes. The book contains examples of existing plants and pilot projects that will be useful for academics dealing with renewable energies and energy storage. Discusses possible applications of synthetic fuels, describing existing plants for fuel production Contains opinions on opportunities offered by the power to fuel concept and by single technologies Presents power to fuel techno-economic models and calculations down to system level Power to Fuel Copyright Contents List of contributors Preface 1 Introduction: the power-to-fuel concept 1.1 Renewable energy sources and energy storage 1.2 Power-to-fuel role in the energy transition 1.3 Main synthetic fuels 1.3.1 Methane 1.3.2 Methanol 1.3.3 Dimethyl ether 1.3.4 Ammonia 1.3.5 Urea 1.3.6 Formic acid Nomenclature References 2 Low-temperature water electrolysis 2.1 Fundamentals: water electrolysis and the oxygen evolution reaction 2.2 Electrocatalyst modelling: state of the art 2.3 Overview of modelling techniques and modelling length scales 2.3.1 Macroscopic length scale and macroscopic quantities 2.3.1.1 Reversible cell potential 2.3.1.2 Voltage 2.3.1.3 Open-circuit voltage 2.3.1.4 Activation overpotential 2.3.1.5 Mass transport overpotential 2.3.1.6 Ohmic losses 2.3.2 Mesoscopic length scale 2.3.3 Microscopic length scale 2.4 Ir-based compounds and their oxides: amorphous and crystalline phases 2.4.1 Ir and its oxides: electrocatalysts 2.4.2 Ir and its oxides: defects and impurities 2.5 Challenges and opportunities of using ab initio modelling of Ir and its oxides in the OER 2.6 Future directions and open issues of low-temperature WE 2.6.1 Mergers, acquisitions and expansion 2.6.2 Fundamentals: modelling of the OER catalyst and operations 2.6.2.1 Safety 2.6.2.2 Cost reduction 2.6.2.3 Durability Acknowledgements Nomenclature References 3 High-temperature electrolysis and co-electrolysis 3.1 Principle 3.1.1 Physical and chemical fields inside the solid oxide electrolyser cell 3.1.1.1 Electrochemical process Equilibrium potential Activation overpotential Ohmic overpotential 3.1.1.2 Chemical process Chemical reactions in the solid oxide electrolyser cell 3.1.1.3 Mass transport process 3.1.1.4 Momentum transport process 3.1.1.5 Heat transfer process 3.2 High-temperature electrolysis for syngas generation 3.2.1 Methane-assisted solid oxide electrolyser cell for H2O and CO2 co-electrolysis 3.2.2 Carbon-assisted SOEC for H2O electrolysis and syngas generation 3.3 Combined SOEC and F–T system for low-carbon fuel generation 3.3.1 Chemical reactions in F–T reactor 3.3.2 Description of the hybrid system 3.3.3 Results and discussion 3.4 Conclusion Nomenclature References 4 Power to methane 4.1 Chemical route 4.1.1 Catalysts 4.1.2 Operational parameters 4.1.3 Reactor structures 4.2 Biological route 4.3 Comparison among available technologies 4.4 System integration 4.5 Environmental impacts of substitute natural gas Nomenclature References 5 Power to methanol 5.1 Methanol production from syngas 5.2 Methanol production from carbon dioxide 5.3 Innovative processes 5.3.1 Coelectrolysis 5.3.2 Biological oxidation of methane Nomenclature References 6 Power-to-DME: a cornerstone towards a sustainable energy system 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Dimethyl ether as a green fuel 6.1.2 Dimethyl ether in fuel cells 6.1.3 Dimethyl ether as chemical building block 6.1.4 Other uses 6.2 Dimethyl ether production pathways 6.2.1 Indirect route 6.2.1.1 Process description 6.2.1.2 Catalysts 6.2.1.3 CO2-based production 6.2.2 Direct route 6.2.2.1 CO2-based production 6.2.3 Emerging pathways 6.2.3.1 Reactive distillation 6.2.3.2 Sorption based 6.2.3.3 Membrane based 6.3 Techno-economic insights 6.4 Summary and outlook Nomenclature References 7 Power to ammonia and urea 7.1 Ammonia as a bridge between agriculture, industry and energy 7.2 Ammonia and urea synthesis 7.3 Raw materials for ammonia and urea production 7.4 Power to ammonia and urea 7.5 Remarks about the social acceptance of power to ammonia References 8 Power to formic acid 8.1 Formic acid as an energy carrier 8.2 Preparation of formic acid by hydrogenation of carbon dioxide 8.2.1 Noble metal-based homogeneous catalysts 8.2.2 Non-noble metal-based homogeneous catalysts 8.2.3 Homogeneous catalysts under base-free conditions 8.2.4 Bulk metal catalysts for heterogeneous catalysis 8.2.5 Supported metal catalysts for heterogeneous catalysis 8.2.6 Heterogenised catalysts 8.2.6.1 Grafted molecular catalysts 8.2.6.2 Heterogenised porous polymers 8.3 Preparation of formic acid by electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide 8.3.1 Solvent and electrolyte 8.3.2 pH and pressure 8.3.3 Electrode materials 8.3.4 Catalysts 8.3.4.1 Metals and metal oxides 8.3.4.2 Molecular complexes 8.3.4.3 Immobilised complexes/composites/hybrid materials 8.3.4.4 Bio-inspired electrocatalysts 8.4 Cost of formic acid production 8.5 Concluding remarks References 9 Power-to-Fuel existing plants and pilot projects 9.1 Power-to-Methane projects 9.1.1 Chemical methanation 9.1.2 Biological methanation 9.2 Power-to-Methanol projects 9.3 Power-to-Ammonia Projects 9.4 Statistics of projects as for number and electrolyser size 9.5 Project geographic distribution References 10 Power-to-fuel potential market 10.1 Industry 10.1.1 Refineries 10.1.2 Chemical sector 10.1.3 Iron and steel production 10.1.4 High-temperature heat generation 10.2 Transport 10.2.1 Cars 10.2.2 Trucks and buses 10.2.3 Trains 10.2.4 Ships 10.2.5 Aviation 10.3 Buildings 10.3.1 Renewable methane 10.3.2 Hydrogen use in buildings 10.3.2.1 Blending 10.3.2.2 Pure hydrogen 10.4 Power generation 10.4.1 Renewable synthetic fuels in power generation 10.4.2 Back-up and off-grid power 10.4.3 Long term and large scale energy storage Nomenclature References Index __Power to Fuel: How to Speed Up a Hydrogen Economy__ highlights how the surplus of electricity from renewable sources can be usefully accumulated thanks to hydrogen overcoming the obstacles that can prevent the final use of hydrogen on a large scale. The book includes an introduction and sections on the production of hydrogen, conversion of hydrogen into synthetic fuel, the power-to-fuel concept, and renewable energy source descriptions. The second and third levels are structured identically with a standalone approach that covers established and commercial pathways, emerging pathways, and cost analysis sections within each subject specific chapter, making the content easily referenced and applied. Readers will find details on the state-of-the-art and emerging technologies of various power to fuels options suitable for different final uses of the stored energy, as well as figures and diagrams that illustrate and compare the different processes. The book contains examples of existing plants and pilot projects that will be useful for academics dealing with renewable energies and energy storage.