Power Generation Technologies

This revised third edition of Power Generation Technologies explores even more renewable technologies in detail, from traditional fossil fuels and the more established alternatives such as wind and solar power, to emerging renewables such as biomass and geothermal energy. The book also features new expanded chapters on tidal project proposals, tidal bunds, enhanced geothermal technology, fast-moving areas in marine energy and the development of floating wind turbines. Power Generation Technologies is more than just an account of the technologies – for each method the author explores the economic and environmental costs and risk factors. Each technology is covered using the same basic criteria, so that comparisons between technologies can be made more easily. Those who are involved in planning and delivering energy, including engineers, managers and policy makers, will find a guide through the minefield of maintaining a reliable power supply, meeting targets on greenhouse gas emissions, and addressing economic and social objectives in this book. Explains in hundreds of diagrams how each technology functions in practice Evaluates the economic and environmental viability of each power generation system covered Features fast-advancing renewable and alternative power sources, such as municipal waste and solar options Applies a fresh focus on the evolution of traditional technologies such as natural gas and ‘clean coal’ Front Cover......Page 1 Power Generation Technologies......Page 4 Copyright Page......Page 5 Contents......Page 6 1 An Introduction to Electricity Generation......Page 14 The History of Electricity Generation......Page 15 The Evolution of Electricity Generation Technologies......Page 16 The Evolution of Electricity Networks......Page 19 Renewable Energy and Distributed Generation......Page 21 A Brief Political Diversion......Page 22 The Size of the Industry......Page 24 2 Electricity Generation and the Environment......Page 28 The Evolution of Environmental Awareness......Page 29 Power Generation: The Broader Environmental Impact......Page 30 The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric Warming......Page 31 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Power Generation......Page 34 Controlling Carbon Dioxide......Page 37 The Hydrogen Economy......Page 38 The Economics of Electricity Production......Page 39 Externalities......Page 40 Life Cycle Assessment......Page 41 The Bottom Line......Page 44 3 Coal-Fired Power Plants......Page 46 Types of Coal......Page 48 Coal Reserves......Page 49 Traditional Coal-Fired Power Generation Technology......Page 51 Boiler Technology......Page 53 Steam Turbine Design......Page 57 Generators......Page 60 Fluidised Bed Combustion......Page 61 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle......Page 64 Emission Control for Coal-Fired Power Plants......Page 65 Low NOx Combustion Strategies......Page 68 Sulphur Dioxide Removal......Page 70 NOx Capture......Page 71 Particulate (Dust) Removal......Page 73 Carbon Dioxide......Page 74 Biomass Cofiring......Page 75 Postcombustion Capture......Page 76 Oxyfuel Combustion......Page 78 Coal Gasification......Page 79 Carbon Dioxide Sequestration......Page 80 The Cost of Coal-Fired Power Generation......Page 81 4 Natural Gas–Fired Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle Power Plants......Page 84 Natural Gas......Page 85 The Growth of Gas Turbine Technology......Page 88 The Gas Turbine Principle......Page 89 Modern Gas Turbine Design for Power Generation......Page 91 Gas Turbine Development......Page 93 Advanced Gas Turbine Cycles......Page 95 Intercooling......Page 96 Recuperation......Page 98 Mass Injection......Page 99 Combined Cycle Power Plants......Page 100 Microturbines......Page 102 Nitrogen Oxides......Page 104 Carbon Dioxide......Page 106 The Cost of Gas Turbine–Based Power Generation......Page 108 5 Piston Engine–Based Power Plants......Page 112 The History of the Reciprocating Engine......Page 113 Engine Fuel......Page 114 Internal Combustion Engine Technology......Page 115 Engine Cycles......Page 116 Engine Size and Engine Speed......Page 119 Spark-Ignition Engines......Page 120 Diesel Engines (Compression Engines)......Page 121 Dual Fuel Engines......Page 122 Stirling Engines......Page 124 Cogeneration......Page 126 Combined Cycle......Page 127 Emission Control......Page 128 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions......Page 129 Sulphur Dioxide......Page 130 The Cost of Reciprocating Engine-Based Power Generation......Page 131 6 Combined Heat and Power......Page 134 The Historical Background to Combined Heat and Power Usage......Page 135 Global Combined Heat and Power Capacity......Page 137 Global Combined Heat and Power Potential......Page 139 Combined Heat and Power Principles and Applications......Page 142 Combined Heat and Power Technology......Page 144 Piston Engines......Page 146 Steam Turbines......Page 147 Gas Turbines......Page 149 Fuel Cells......Page 151 Nuclear Power......Page 153 The Cost of Combined Heat and Power......Page 154 7 Fuel Cells......Page 158 The History of Fuel Cells......Page 159 Global Fuel Cell Capacity......Page 160 The Fuel Cell Principle......Page 162 Catalysts......Page 166 Hydrocarbon Gas Reformation......Page 167 Fuel Cell Types......Page 168 The Alkaline Fuel Cell......Page 170 The Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell......Page 171 The Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell......Page 174 The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell......Page 176 The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell......Page 178 The Direct Methanol Fuel Cell......Page 181 Fuel Cell Costs......Page 183 8 Hydropower......Page 186 Global Hydropower Capacity and Production......Page 188 The Hydropower Resource......Page 190 Hydropower Sites......Page 192 Categories of Hydropower Plants......Page 193 Run-of-River Project......Page 194 Dam and Reservoir Projects......Page 196 Dam Types......Page 197 Impulse Turbines......Page 199 Reaction Turbines......Page 201 Francis Turbine......Page 202 Propeller and Kaplan Turbines......Page 203 Generators......Page 204 Small Hydropower......Page 205 Environmental Considerations......Page 208 Resettlement......Page 209 Geological Effects......Page 210 Greenhouse Gases......Page 211 Hydropower and Intermittent Renewable Generation......Page 212 The Cost of Electricity Generation From Hydropower Plants......Page 213 9 Tidal Barrage Power Plants......Page 216 The Tidal Resource......Page 217 Operating Tidal Barrage Power Plants......Page 219 Tidal Power Plant Design......Page 220 Two-Basin Projects......Page 222 Tidal Lagoons......Page 223 Tidal Barrage Construction Techniques......Page 224 Turbines......Page 225 Sluices and Ship Locks......Page 227 Environmental Considerations......Page 228 The Cost of Electricity Generation From Tidal Barrage Power Plants......Page 229 10 Power System Energy Storage Technologies......Page 232 Types of Energy Storage......Page 234 Global Energy Storage Capacity......Page 236 Pumped-Storage Hydropower......Page 238 Pumped-Storage Technology......Page 239 Pumped-Storage Sites......Page 240 The Cost of a Pumped-Storage Hydropower Plant......Page 241 Compressed Air Energy Storage......Page 242 Compressed Air Storage Facilities......Page 243 Turbine Technology and Compressed Air Energy Storage Cycles......Page 244 Costs......Page 246 Large-Scale Batteries......Page 247 The Battery Principle......Page 248 Lead-Acid Batteries......Page 249 Nickel–Cadmium Batteries......Page 250 Flow Batteries......Page 251 Costs......Page 252 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage......Page 253 The Flywheel Principle......Page 255 Flywheel Performance Characteristics......Page 256 Capacitors......Page 257 Energy Storage Capacitor Principles......Page 258 Applications......Page 259 Hydrogen Energy Essentials......Page 260 Costs......Page 262 11 Wind Power......Page 264 Global Wind Power Capacity......Page 266 Wind Resources......Page 268 Wind Turbine Technology......Page 270 Rotors......Page 272 Yawing......Page 274 Drivetrains and Generator......Page 275 Offshore Wind Turbine Technology......Page 277 Wind Farms......Page 280 Environmental Effects of Wind Power......Page 281 Wind intermittency and grid issues......Page 282 Wind Capacity Limits......Page 283 Repowering......Page 284 The Cost of Wind Power......Page 285 12 Geothermal Power......Page 288 Global Geothermal Capacity......Page 289 The Geothermal Resource......Page 291 Geothermal Fields......Page 292 Hot Dry Rock......Page 294 Location of Geothermal Resources......Page 296 Direct Steam Power Plants......Page 297 Flash Steam Plants......Page 299 Binary Cycle Power Plants......Page 300 Geothermal Power and District Heating......Page 302 The Cost of Geothermal Power......Page 303 13 Solar Power......Page 306 Global Solar Power Generating Capacity......Page 307 The Solar Energy Resource......Page 308 Solar Sites and Land Resources......Page 310 Solar Thermal Power Generation......Page 311 Parabolic Troughs......Page 312 Solar Towers......Page 316 Solar Dishes......Page 319 Fresnel Reflectors......Page 321 Other Solar Thermal Technologies......Page 322 Photovoltaic Devices......Page 324 Solar Photovoltaic Technology......Page 325 Types of Solar Cells......Page 326 Cell Structures......Page 327 Third-Generation Solar Cells......Page 329 Modules, Inverters and Panels......Page 330 System Types......Page 331 The Cost of Solar Power......Page 332 Solar Thermal Costs......Page 333 Solar Photovoltaic Costs......Page 334 14 Marine Power Generation Technologies......Page 336 The Marine Energy Resource......Page 337 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion......Page 339 OTEC Technology......Page 340 Wave Power......Page 343 Wave Power Technology......Page 344 Oscillating Water Columns......Page 345 Overtopping Devices and Tapered Channels......Page 346 Oscillating Flaps......Page 347 Buoyancy-Based Devices......Page 348 Pontoons, Snakes and Ducks......Page 349 Marine Current Energy......Page 351 Marine Current Energy Converters......Page 352 Horizontal Axis Turbines......Page 353 Vertical Axis Turbines......Page 355 Water Wheels and Cross-Flow Turbines......Page 356 Other Marine Current Devices......Page 357 Marine Current Projects......Page 358 Osmotic Power......Page 359 Vapour Compression......Page 360 The Cost of Marine Power Generation......Page 361 15 Biomass-Based Power Generation......Page 364 Global Biomass Electricity Production......Page 366 Biomass Wastes......Page 368 Fuelwood......Page 370 Energy Crops......Page 371 Biomass Trade......Page 373 Biomass Energy Conversion Technology......Page 374 Direct Firing......Page 375 Co-firing......Page 378 Biomass Gasification......Page 379 Fuel Handling......Page 382 Biomass Digesters......Page 383 Liquid Fuels......Page 384 Technology Costs......Page 385 The Cost of Electricity From Biomass......Page 386 16 Power From Waste......Page 388 Landfill Waste Disposal......Page 390 Global Production of Power From Waste......Page 391 The Politics of Waste......Page 393 Waste Management Hierarchy......Page 394 Sources of Waste......Page 395 Waste Composition......Page 396 Waste Collection and Recycling......Page 398 Waste Power Generation Technologies......Page 399 Traditional Waste Incineration Plants......Page 400 Gasification and Pyrolysis......Page 402 Refuse-Derived Fuel......Page 404 Environmental Issues and Waste Plant Emissions......Page 405 Waste Plant Emissions......Page 406 Flue Gas......Page 407 The Cost of Energy From Waste Plants......Page 408 17 Nuclear Power......Page 412 Global Capacity and Electricity Production From Nuclear Power......Page 414 Fundamentals of Nuclear Power......Page 417 Nuclear Fission......Page 418 Controlled Nuclear Reaction......Page 419 Fusion......Page 420 Nuclear Fission Reactor Designs......Page 421 Boiling Water Reactor......Page 422 Pressurised Water Reactor......Page 423 The Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (CANDU Reactor)......Page 424 Gas-Cooled Reactors......Page 426 High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor......Page 427 Nuclear Fast (Breeder) Reactors......Page 428 Advanced Reactors......Page 430 Small Modular Reactors......Page 432 Magnetic Confinement......Page 434 Inertial Confinement......Page 436 The Environmental Question......Page 437 Radioactive Waste......Page 438 Waste Categories......Page 439 Decommissioning......Page 440 The Cost of Nuclear Power......Page 441 Index......Page 444 Back Cover......Page 463 Power Generation Technologies, Third Edition (2019) 463pp. 978-0-08-102631-1 Front Cover 1 Power Generation Technologies 4 Copyright Page 5 Contents 6 1 An Introduction to Electricity Generation 14 The History of Electricity Generation 15 The Evolution of Electricity Generation Technologies 16 The Evolution of Electricity Networks 19 Renewable Energy and Distributed Generation 21 A Brief Political Diversion 22 The Size of the Industry 24 2 Electricity Generation and the Environment 28 The Evolution of Environmental Awareness 29 Power Generation: The Broader Environmental Impact 30 The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric Warming 31 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Power Generation 34 Controlling Carbon Dioxide 37 The Hydrogen Economy 38 The Economics of Electricity Production 39 Externalities 40 Life Cycle Assessment 41 The Bottom Line 44 3 Coal-Fired Power Plants 46 Types of Coal 48 Coal Reserves 49 Coal Cleaning and Processing 51 Traditional Coal-Fired Power Generation Technology 51 Boiler Technology 53 Steam Turbine Design 57 Generators 60 Fluidised Bed Combustion 61 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle 64 Emission Control for Coal-Fired Power Plants 65 Coal Treatment 68 Low NOx Combustion Strategies 68 Sulphur Dioxide Removal 70 NOx Capture 71 Combined Sulphur and Nitrogen Oxide Removal 73 Particulate (Dust) Removal 73 Mercury Removal 74 Carbon Dioxide 74 Biomass Cofiring 75 Postcombustion Capture 76 Oxyfuel Combustion 78 Coal Gasification 79 Carbon Dioxide Sequestration 80 The Cost of Coal-Fired Power Generation 81 4 Natural Gas–Fired Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle Power Plants 84 Natural Gas 85 The Growth of Gas Turbine Technology 88 The Gas Turbine Principle 89 Modern Gas Turbine Design for Power Generation 91 Gas Turbine Development 93 Advanced Gas Turbine Cycles 95 Reheating 96 Intercooling 96 Recuperation 98 Mass Injection 99 Combined Cycle Power Plants 100 Microturbines 102 Emission Control for Gas Turbine Power Plants 104 Nitrogen Oxides 104 Carbon Monoxide 106 Carbon Dioxide 106 The Cost of Gas Turbine–Based Power Generation 108 5 Piston Engine–Based Power Plants 112 The History of the Reciprocating Engine 113 Engine Fuel 114 Internal Combustion Engine Technology 115 Engine Cycles 116 Engine Size and Engine Speed 119 Spark-Ignition Engines 120 Diesel Engines (Compression Engines) 121 Dual Fuel Engines 122 Stirling Engines 124 Cogeneration 126 Combined Cycle 127 Emission Control 128 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions 129 Carbon Monoxide, Volatile Organic Compounds and Particulates 130 Sulphur Dioxide 130 Carbon Dioxide 131 The Cost of Reciprocating Engine-Based Power Generation 131 6 Combined Heat and Power 134 The Historical Background to Combined Heat and Power Usage 135 Global Combined Heat and Power Capacity 137 Global Combined Heat and Power Potential 139 Combined Heat and Power Principles and Applications 142 Combined Heat and Power Technology 144 Piston Engines 146 Steam Turbines 147 Gas Turbines 149 Microturbines 151 Fuel Cells 151 Nuclear Power 153 The Cost of Combined Heat and Power 154 7 Fuel Cells 158 The History of Fuel Cells 159 Global Fuel Cell Capacity 160 The Fuel Cell Principle 162 Catalysts 166 Hydrocarbon Gas Reformation 167 Fuel Cell Efficiency 168 Fuel Cell Types 168 The Alkaline Fuel Cell 170 The Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell 171 The Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell 174 The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell 176 The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 178 The Direct Methanol Fuel Cell 181 Fuel Cell Costs 183 8 Hydropower 186 Global Hydropower Capacity and Production 188 The Hydropower Resource 190 Hydropower Sites 192 Categories of Hydropower Plants 193 Large Hydropower Plants: Dams and Barrages 194 Run-of-River Project 194 Dam and Reservoir Projects 196 Dam Types 197 Hydropower Turbines 199 Impulse Turbines 199 Reaction Turbines 201 Francis Turbine 202 Propeller and Kaplan Turbines 203 Deriaz Turbine 204 Generators 204 Small Hydropower 205 Environmental Considerations 208 Environmental Assessment 209 Resettlement 209 Biodiversity 210 Geological Effects 210 Sedimentation and Downstream Effects 211 Greenhouse Gases 211 Interregional Effects 212 Hydropower and Intermittent Renewable Generation 212 The Cost of Electricity Generation From Hydropower Plants 213 9 Tidal Barrage Power Plants 216 The Tidal Resource 217 Operating Tidal Barrage Power Plants 219 Tidal Power Plant Design 220 Two-Basin Projects 222 Tidal Lagoons 223 Tidal Barrage Construction Techniques 224 Turbines 225 Turbine Speed Regulation 227 Sluices and Ship Locks 227 Environmental Considerations 228 The Cost of Electricity Generation From Tidal Barrage Power Plants 229 10 Power System Energy Storage Technologies 232 Types of Energy Storage 234 Global Energy Storage Capacity 236 Pumped-Storage Hydropower 238 Pumped-Storage Technology 239 Variable Speed Operation 240 Pumped-Storage Sites 240 Performance 241 The Cost of a Pumped-Storage Hydropower Plant 241 Compressed Air Energy Storage 242 The Compressed Air Energy Storage Principle 243 Compressed Air Storage Facilities 243 Turbine Technology and Compressed Air Energy Storage Cycles 244 Liquid Air Energy Storage 246 Costs 246 Large-Scale Batteries 247 The Battery Principle 248 Lead-Acid Batteries 249 Nickel–Cadmium Batteries 250 Lithium Batteries 251 Sodium Sulphur Batteries 251 Flow Batteries 251 Costs 252 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage 253 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Costs 255 Flywheels 255 The Flywheel Principle 255 Flywheel Performance Characteristics 256 Costs 257 Capacitors 257 Energy Storage Capacitor Principles 258 Performance Characteristics 259 Applications 259 Costs 260 Hydrogen Energy Storage 260 Hydrogen Energy Essentials 260 Performance Characteristics 262 Costs 262 11 Wind Power 264 Global Wind Power Capacity 266 Wind Resources 268 Wind Turbine Technology 270 Wind Turbine Anatomy 272 Rotors 272 Yawing 274 Drivetrains and Generator 275 Towers 277 Offshore Wind Turbine Technology 277 Wind Farms 280 Environmental Effects of Wind Power 281 Wind intermittency and grid issues 282 Wind Capacity Limits 283 Repowering 284 The Cost of Wind Power 285 12 Geothermal Power 288 Global Geothermal Capacity 289 The Geothermal Resource 291 Geothermal Fields 292 Brine-Methane Reservoirs 294 Hot Dry Rock 294 Exploiting the Magma 296 Location of Geothermal Resources 296 The Size of the Resource 297 Geothermal Energy Conversion Technologies 297 Direct Steam Power Plants 297 Flash Steam Plants 299 Binary Cycle Power Plants 300 Advanced Geothermal Technologies 302 Geothermal Power and District Heating 302 Finding and Exploiting Geothermal Sources 303 The Cost of Geothermal Power 303 13 Solar Power 306 Global Solar Power Generating Capacity 307 The Solar Energy Resource 308 Solar Sites and Land Resources 310 Solar Power Generation Technologies 311 Solar Thermal Power Generation 311 Parabolic Troughs 312 Solar Towers 316 Solar Dishes 319 Fresnel Reflectors 321 Other Solar Thermal Technologies 322 Photovoltaic Devices 324 Solar Photovoltaic Technology 325 Types of Solar Cells 326 Cell Structures 327 Concentrating Solar Cells 329 Third-Generation Solar Cells 329 Modules, Inverters and Panels 330 System Types 331 Solar Photovoltaic Generation and Energy Storage 332 The Cost of Solar Power 332 Solar Thermal Costs 333 Solar Photovoltaic Costs 334 14 Marine Power Generation Technologies 336 The Marine Energy Resource 337 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 339 OTEC Technology 340 Wave Power 343 Wave Power Technology 344 Shore and Nearshore Wave Converters 345 Oscillating Water Columns 345 Overtopping Devices and Tapered Channels 346 Oscillating Flaps 347 Offshore Devices 348 Buoyancy-Based Devices 348 Pontoons, Snakes and Ducks 349 Piezoelectric Devices 351 Marine Current Energy 351 Marine Current Energy Converters 352 Horizontal Axis Turbines 353 Vertical Axis Turbines 355 Water Wheels and Cross-Flow Turbines 356 Other Marine Current Devices 357 Marine Current Projects 358 Salinity Gradient Power Generation 359 Osmotic Power 359 Vapour Compression 360 Hydrocratic Power 361 Reverse Electrodialysis 361 The Cost of Marine Power Generation 361 15 Biomass-Based Power Generation 364 Global Biomass Electricity Production 366 Types of Biomass 368 Biomass Wastes 368 Fuelwood 370 Energy Crops 371 Biomass Trade 373 Biomass Energy Conversion Technology 374 Direct Firing 375 Co-firing 378 Biomass Gasification 379 Fuel Handling 382 Biomass Digesters 383 Liquid Fuels 384 The Cost of Biomass Power Generation 385 Technology Costs 385 Fuel Costs 386 The Cost of Electricity From Biomass 386 16 Power From Waste 388 Landfill Waste Disposal 390 Global Production of Power From Waste 391 The Politics of Waste 393 Waste Management Hierarchy 394 Sources of Waste 395 Waste Composition 396 Waste Collection and Recycling 398 Waste Power Generation Technologies 399 Traditional Waste Incineration Plants 400 Gasification and Pyrolysis 402 Refuse-Derived Fuel 404 Environmental Issues and Waste Plant Emissions 405 Waste Plant Emissions 406 Ash 407 Fly Ash and Flue Gas Treatment Residues 407 Flue Gas 407 Dioxins 408 Heavy Metals 408 The Cost of Energy From Waste Plants 408 17 Nuclear Power 412 Global Capacity and Electricity Production From Nuclear Power 414 Fundamentals of Nuclear Power 417 Nuclear Fission 418 Controlled Nuclear Reaction 419 Fusion 420 Nuclear Fission Reactor Designs 421 Boiling Water Reactor 422 Pressurised Water Reactor 423 The Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (CANDU Reactor) 424 Gas-Cooled Reactors 426 RBMK Reactor 427 High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor 427 Nuclear Fast (Breeder) Reactors 428 Advanced Reactors 430 Small Modular Reactors 432 Nuclear Fusion 434 Magnetic Confinement 434 Inertial Confinement 436 Tritium Production 437 The Environmental Question 437 Radioactive Waste 438 Waste Categories 439 Decommissioning 440 The Cost of Nuclear Power 441 Index 444 Back Cover 463