Power and Authority, A Trial of Two Swords : A History of the Union of the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Sicily (1186-1250)

On 27 January 1186 the German king Henry VI, son and heir of the Roman Emperor Frederick I ‘Barbarossa’, married Constance of Hauteville, heir to the throne of Sicily, in the Basilica of St Ambrose in Milan. The royal wedding sealed the union of the Kingdom of Sicily and the Holy Roman Empire, creating an enormous empire stretching from the shores of the North Sea to the beaches of Africa. The union also incited a major geopolitical conflict dominating European politics in the thirteenth century since it seriously compromised the sovereignty which the Roman papacy professed to exercise over all Christendom as well as the territorial integrity of the Papal State. Consequently, succeeding popes ( Innocent III, Gregory IX and Innocent IV) endeavoured to undo that union at all costs. The ensuing struggle between the Roman papacy and the Hohenstaufen emperors culminated in the deposition of the Emperor Frederick II by Pope Innocent IV on the First Council of Lyon in 1245, resulting in the final dissolution of the union of the Empire and the Kingdom of Sicily and the extermination of the Hohenstaufen race. By inviting a foreign prince, Charles of Anjou, brother to King Louis IX of France, to fight the last of the Hohenstaufens, papal politics ultimately turned the Italian peninsula into a battlefield for the two major powers of early-modern Europe: Spain and France. The origins, the vicissitudes, and the consequences of the union of the Empire and the Kingdom of Sicily are the subject of the first part of this book. The second part deals with the trial of Frederick II at Lyon, the court and its competence, the law involved and, lastly, the execution and aftermath of the sentence of the court. Introduction Contents Prologue Part I: Unio regni ad imperium 1. The Kingdom of Sicily Freedom of the Church The Treaty of Melfi Roger II becomes king of Sicily His title confirmed by Innocent II 2. The Holy Roman Empire The Rise of a New Roman Empire in the West The Lombard problem A new king of the Franks Pope Stephen II goes to Gaul The Donation of Pepin Pope Stephen II grants the Roman patriciate to Pepin Charlemagne conquers the Lombard kingdom The Donation of Charlemagne Charlemagne crowned as Roman Emperor The Hludowicianum Constitutio romana Rapid decline of Charlemagne’s empire The Tribal Kingdom The German succession Otto I in Italy The Ottonianum and the Roman synod of 963 The Salian emperors The ‘election’ of Conrad III The election of Frederick I 3. Frederick I ‘Barbarossa’ Frederick I defines ‘Gelasian’ doctrine Two Swords The Treaty of Konstanz The Italian policy of Frederick I 4. The Italian Kingdom The German kings and Italy Barbarossa comes to the Italian kingdom The constitutional problems ahead 5. Pope Hadrian IV and Frederick I An awkward meeting at Sutri Barbarossa meets ambassadors from Rome Barbarossa refuses to invade Sicily King William I asserts his authority 6. Cardinal Bandinelli The Treaty of Benevento Cardinal Bandinelli The Besançon incident 7. The Parliament of Roncaglia Barbarossa takes on Milan The lex ‘Omnis iurisdictio’ The Lombard conundrum 8. Pope Alexander III A contested papal election The Pavia Council The destruction of Milan A failed summit Barbarossa marches on Rome Alexander III back in Rome The Roman disaster The Lombard League Alessandria The siege of Alessandria The Battle of Legnano 9. Peace in Venice Negotiations in Anagni The papal peace strategy The pope goes to Venice The Ferrara conference Barbarossa’s reservations Barbarossa confronted with an ultimatum Barbarossa in Venice 10. The Second Storm from Swabia The Peace of Konstanz Barbarossa returns to Lombardy Henry VI marries Constance of Sicily The Roman ‘Kaiser’ Tancred of Lecce and Richard of England The coronation of Henry VI His failed Sicilian campaign The capture of Richard of England Henry VI is crowned king of Sicily 11. Innocent III and the Kingdom of Sicily Birth of Frederick II He is raised in Sicily Innocent III Contested elections The election of Philip of Swabia Innocent III and the German election Papal involvement in Sicilian affairs Walter of Brienne The King comes of age Lessons learned The ruined kingdom 12. Otto IV and the Kingdom of Sicily Papal adversities Philip of Swabia prevails Philip comes to terms with Innocent III Innocent III and Otto IV Innocent III and Philip ‘Auguste’ Otto IV is re-elected He refuses to make peace with France Otto IV comes to Italy His conference with Innocent III in Viterbo His coronation by Innocent III Otto IV meets with Sicilian malcontents He decides to invade Sicily Otto IV is excommunicated Otto IV leaves Italy Innocent III is out of options Frederick II accepts his election and submits to the papal conditions He leaves Sicily He meets Innocent III His passage to Germany He pays his debts The battle of Bouvines 13. Crusade Frederick II takes the cross The Fourth Lateran Council The Albigensian Crusade The third canon of the Fourth Lateran Council The matter of Raymond VI of Toulouse The matter of the Empire The crusading army is to depart on 1 June 1217 14. Procrastination and Deception Promises and true intentions The Fifth Crusade Mounting pressure on Frederick II and Honorius III Henry (VII) elected King of the Romans Frederick II returns to Italy His imperial coronation 15. Excommunication I Frederick II returns to the Sicilian kingdom The Assizes of Capua Sicilian affairs The Fifth Crusade ends in disaster The Ferentino conference Rising animosity in the curia against Frederick II Frederick II turns his attention to Lombardy His failure to reform the Italian kingdom Gregory IX excommunicates Frederick II 16. Atonement The reaction of Frederick II Preparations of Frederick II for a new crusade Frederick II in the Holy Land Frederick II in Jerusalem Gregory IX invades the Sicilian kingdom Rearrangement of papal policy The Peace of S. Germano The decisive role of the German princes 17. Competing Legislators The Emperor Frederick II decides to codify Sicilian royal legislation The king sole guarantor of peace and justice Legislation his exclusive domain The incident of the coronation statutes The Cult of Justice The nature of Frederick’s code Gregory IX disapproves of the Sicilian codification project The Pope Gregory’s code of canon law Nature and effectiveness of Gregory’s code Gregory IX at war with the Romans 18. Excommunication II Henry (VII) and the German princes Assassination of Duke Louis of Bavaria Frederick II and the German princes The emperor, the pope, and the Lombard League Frederick II and his son Conrad depart for Germany The deposition of Henry (VII) The Diet of Mainz Reconciliation with the Guelphs Frederick’s son Conrad not elected king of the Romans Frederick justifies his Lombard policy Frederick in Lombardy and in Austria Frederick’s son Conrad nominated as ‘king elect’ Frederick attempts to rally the European princes into an anti-clerical alliance Gregory IX asserts his plenitudo potestatis The battle of Cortenuova Frederick excommunicated a second time 19. Frustrated councils Cardinal Pecorara’s secret mission to France Frederick II urges the cardinals to call a general council Gregory IX launches a crusade against Frederick II Frederick II before the walls of Rome A temporary truce Gregory IX calls a general council The battle of Monte Christo 20. Diversions Sedis vacantia German reactions to Frederick’s second excommunication The Mongol invasion Frederick II and Innocent IV Negotiations to restore peace Cardinal Capocci takes the initiative A preliminary peace agreement Heinrich ‘Raspe’ is approached The pope panics He leaves Italy and seeks asylum in France Innocent IV goes to Lyon and calls a general council Part II: Dies Irae 1. The Summons An emperor on trial Historical precedents The doctrine of plenitudo potestatis Legal authorities: the decretal ‘Venerabilem’ The decretal ‘Excommunicamus’ The decretal ‘Novit ille’ The decretal ‘Per venerabilem’ Frederick II refuses to stand trial 2. The Venue Innocent IV in Lyon An unsuccess­ful attempt at reconciliation A last attempt at reconciliation Setting the stage 3. The Trial The First Session Innocent IV brings his charges The charge of heresy The Second Session A witness to the character of Frederick II The charge of sacrilege Master Thaddaeus requests a suspension The Adjournment Codification of the secular privileges of the Church Preparing a definitive judgment An important legal brief The papal decisio Frederick II in Verona The Third and Final Session From Lyon to Verona and back again Another ‘last’ peace initiative Master Thaddaeus objects Innocent IV rejects all objections The Sentence The emperor declared guilty of four serious crimes Frederick’s Reaction Due process The summons contested Frederick warns the European monarchs Innocent IV rejects all criticism Frederick II appeals to the French nobility 4. Execution Execution by way of assassination The Parma conspiracy The Sicilian conspiracy Louis IX tries to mediate Heinrich Raspe ‘elected’ king of the Romans The German electoral college Death of Heinrich Raspe Frederick II loses Parma William of Holland ‘elected’ king of the Romans Victoria Louis IX warns the pope The Seventh Crusade Another assassination attempt The death of Piero della Vigna Enzio imprisoned in Bologna The demise of Frederick II 5. Extermination Conrad IV Conrad IV leaves Germany Conrad IV dies Manfred Innocent IV in search of a new king of Sicily The Sicilian kingdom after the demise of Conrad IV Innocent IV takes control of the Sicilian kingdom Dissolution Manfred strikes back The German succession crisis The League of the Rhine The electors selling their votes A contested election The nadir of the Empire King Manfred Manfred is crowned king of Sicily Manfred’s Italian policy Urban IV Charles of Anjou Charles of Anjou senator of Rome The king’s troubled conscience Urban IV and Manfred The king’s conscience at ease Urban IV restates papal policy Provencal troops in Rome Manfred’s failed offensive Clement IV elected pope Charles of Anjou in Rome Death of Manfred Conradin The Sicilian exiles and Italian Ghibellines turn to Conradin Conradin The Augsburg conference Developments in Rome and Tuscany Conradin in Verona Conradin in Pavia Clement IV wields the spiritual sword Conradin in Rome Defeat Humiliation Death 6. Aftermath The Grand Design of Charles of Anjou Charles of Anjou represses all resistance in the Sicilian kingdom Charles of Anjou in Tunis Michael VIII, Charles of Anjou and Gregory X John of Procida in Germany The Holy Roman Empire Rudolph of Habsburg elected king of the Romans The Second Council of Lyon Gregory X at Beaucaire The Lausanne conference Nicholas III, Rudolph I and Charles of Anjou The Kingdom of Sicily The English intermezzo Nicholas III plans to reform the Roman Empire Martin IV and Charles of Anjou John of Procida in Aragon Overcoming obstacles The Aragonese-Byzantine alliance The Sicilian Vespers Peter of Aragon comes to Sicily Charles of Anjou besieges Messina Charles of Anjou loses Sicily Trial by Battle Peter of Aragon excommunicated and deposed The Aragonese crusade The death of kings Epilogue Medieval Totalitarianism Medieval Corporate Government Select Bibliography Index of People and Places Simplified Genealogical Trees Maps List of Illustrations