Political parties : a sociological study of the oligarchical tendencies of modern democracy

The present study makes no attempt to offer a “new system.” It is not the principal aim of science to create systems, but rather to promote understanding. It is not the purpose of sociological science to discover, or rediscover, solutions, since numerous problems of the individual life and of the life of social groups are not capable of “solutions” at all, but must ever remain “open.” The sociologist should aim rather at the dispassionate exposition of tendencies and counter-operating forces, of reasons and opposing reasons, at the display, in a word, of the warp and the woof of social life. Precise diagnosis is the logical and indispensable preliminary to any possible prognosis.The unravelment and the detailed formulation of the complex of tendencies which oppose the realization of democracy are matters of exceeding difficulty. A preliminary analysis of these tendencies may, however, be attempted. They will be found to be classifiable at tendencies dependent (1) upon the nature of the human individual; (2) upon the nature of the political struggle; and (3) upon the nature of organization. Democracy leads to oligarchy, and necessarily contains an oligarchical nucleus. In making this assertion it is far from the author's intention to pass a moral judgment upon any political party or any system of government, to level an accusation of hypocrisy. The law that it is an essential characteristic of all human aggregates to constitute cliques and sub-classes is, like every other sociological law, beyond good and evil. The study and analysis of political parties constitutes a new branch of science. It occupies an intermediate field between the social, the philosophico-psychological, and the historical disciplines, and may be termed a branch of applied sociology. In view of the present development of political parties, the historical aspect of this new branch of science has received considerable attention. 2016 Reprint of 1962 Edition. Full facsimile of the original edition, not reproduced with Optical Recognition Software. This work, first published in German in 1911 introduced the concept of iron law of oligarchy. It is considered one of the classics of social sciences, in particular sociology and political science. This work analyzes the power structures of organizations such as political parties and trade unions. Michels' main argument is that all organizations, even those in theory most egalitarian and most committed to democracy - like socialist political parties - are in fact oligarchical, and dominated by a small group of leadership. The book also provides a first systematic analysis of how a radical political party loses its radical goals under the dynamics of electoral participation. The origins of moderation theory can be found in this analysis. Author's Preface Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Part 1 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 B. Psychological Causes of Leadership Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 C. Intellectual Factors Chapter 1 Part 2 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Part 3 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Part 4 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Part 5 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Part 6 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Notes THE MOST restricted form of oligarchy, absolute monarchy, is founded upon the will of a single individual.