Political Empowerment of Women: The Netherlands and Other Countries (Nijhoff Law Specials, 59)

The problem of ensuring that women are at the heart of political decision-making is now very topical in Europe. This is because, despite all of the international agreements, the research, the recommendations and the untold other efforts, the participation of women in political bodies remains low in most European countries. European governance, in short, still fails to include 50 per cent of women in its political decision-making. Why do political leaders attach importance to this issue? The under-representation of women in national parliaments poses a problem in terms of both the practice and the theory of politics. In practical terms, the under-representation of women in political leadership is even more remarkable when one realizes that women have succeeded in gaining access to other sectors of society in many European countries. Moreover, equality between men and women is now a leading political principle all over Europe. Taking part in decision-making however, in politics as well as in the private sector, typically remains a male privilege. This book explains the high level of current concern for the under-representation of women in politics. It explores the reasons behind recent favourable attitudes towards sharing political power with women in the Netherlands, and in other European countries. It identifies the many obstacles and strategies and it points out future expectations about the representation of women in Europe. Under which circumstances can political players be influenced to change institutions and procedures in favour of newcomers to politics. The current ‘crisis of politics'opens a window of opportunity for changing the underlying male-biased structures. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 11 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION......Page 13 THE POLITICS OF GENDER REPRESENTATION......Page 14 THE POLICY OF GENDER REPRESENTATION......Page 18 POSITIVE CONTRIBUTION......Page 19 THE CASE OF THE NETHERLANDS......Page 20 PLAN OF THE BOOK......Page 22 PART I: DEMOCRATIC DEFICIT: A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE......Page 27 CHAPTER 2 POLITICAL REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN FIFTEEN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES......Page 29 WOMEN IN POLITICS IN THE 15 EUROPEAN COUNTRIES......Page 30 Scandinavian Countries......Page 33 Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain......Page 37 France, Belgium and Luxembourg......Page 42 Britain and Ireland......Page 48 Germany and Austria......Page 55 EUROPEAN UNION......Page 60 EVALUATING EUROPE......Page 65 CHAPTER 3 AN EXPLANATORY FRAMEWORK FOR WOMEN'S POLITICAL REPRESENTATION......Page 68 VOTING......Page 70 Social and Cultural Climate......Page 74 Gender Division of Labour and Gender Equality......Page 75 Structural Factors......Page 76 Situational Factors......Page 77 Psychological Factors......Page 78 SELECTION......Page 79 Electoral System......Page 80 Selection Process......Page 83 Selection Criteria......Page 85 Women's Factions......Page 87 Party System/Party Competition......Page 89 Quality of Life......Page 90 ELECTION......Page 91 Preferential Voting and Electoral Attractiveness......Page 92 REPRESENTATION......Page 93 CONCLUSION......Page 94 PART II: THE CASE OF THE NETHERLANDS......Page 97 CHAPTER 4 THE NETHERLANDS: POLITICAL RIGHTS FOR WOMEN......Page 99 'NO GENDER BARRIER AT THE POLLING BOOTH'......Page 100 POLITICAL SYSTEM......Page 101 ELECTORAL SYSTEM......Page 102 PARTY SYSTEM......Page 104 Pillarisation......Page 108 PARTIES' ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE INTEGRATION OF WOMEN IN POLITICS......Page 110 Women's Suffrage......Page 111 After 1919: the Confessional Parties......Page 114 After 1919: the Liberal and Socialist Parties......Page 116 After 1945......Page 119 WOMEN'S PARTIES......Page 124 CONCLUSION......Page 129 CHAPTER 5 FROM TOKEN TO PLAYER......Page 131 1917-1946: PIONEERS......Page 132 1946-1975: TOKENS OR GROUP REPRESENTATIVES......Page 135 1975-1989: DEFENDERS OF WOMEN'S INTERESTS......Page 140 1990S: PLAYERS......Page 145 LOCAL AND REGIONAL LEVEL......Page 150 EUROPEAN LEVEL......Page 157 CONCLUSION......Page 158 CHAPTER 6 EXPLAINING THE CHANGE IN ATTITUDE......Page 160 Employment and Education......Page 161 Equality Policies......Page 165 WOMEN'S ORGANISATIONS......Page 169 POLITICAL PARTIES......Page 176 Party Membership......Page 177 Women's Factions......Page 179 Selection Criteria......Page 183 Affirmative Action Plans by Parties......Page 185 GOVERNMENT......Page 187 CONCLUSION......Page 196 CHAPTER 7 EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN IN THE 21ST CENTURY: LONG-LASTING DEVELOPMENT OR SHORT-TERM UPHEAVAL?......Page 198 Parliamentary Elections......Page 199 Local and Provincial Elections......Page 205 Women's Movement......Page 207 Political Parties......Page 210 Government......Page 213 Combining Work and Care......Page 214 Empowerment......Page 218 Gender Mainstreaming and Empowerment......Page 220 CONCLUSION......Page 223 PART III: DEBATES AND DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE......Page 227 CHAPTER 8 PARTY QUOTAS, PARITY AND 'PANDA' LAWS......Page 229 VOLUNTARY QUOTAS INTRODUCED BY PARTIES......Page 230 QUOTA LEGISLATION......Page 238 Arguments in Favour of Legally Imposed Quotas......Page 240 Arguments against Legally Imposed Quotas......Page 243 From Theoretical Concept into Law of the Land......Page 244 BELGIUM......Page 248 GREECE......Page 253 ITALY......Page 254 PORTUGAL......Page 257 DISCUSSION......Page 259 CHAPTER 9 WINDOW OF OPPORTUNITY: THE CRISIS OF POLITICS......Page 264 THE CRISIS OF PARTY POLITICS......Page 266 A REACTION: POLITICAL REFORM......Page 269 GENDER AND POLITICAL REFORM......Page 273 A NEW INSTITUTIONAL REGIME FOR SELECTING MEPS......Page 279 CONCLUSION......Page 289 CHAPTER 10 THE FUTURE OF EUROPEAN GENDER DEMOCRACY......Page 291 The 15 European Countries......Page 292 The Dutch Case......Page 295 An Enlarged Europe......Page 296 Recruitment......Page 297 Selection......Page 298 Representation......Page 299 DANGERS THAT LIE IN WAIT......Page 301 TIME FOR NEW POLITICS......Page 305 New Politics and Gender......Page 307 GENDER DEMOCRACY AS A CONDITION OF GOOD EUROPEAN GOVERNANCE......Page 308 APPENDIX ABBREVIATIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES......Page 311 BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 313 INDEX......Page 327 The problem of ensuring that women are at the heart of political decision-making is now very topical in Europe. This is because, despite all of the international agreements, the research, the recommendations and the untold other efforts, the participation of women in political bodies remains low in most European countries. European governance, in short, still fails to include 50 per cent of women in its political decision-making. Why do political leaders attach importance to this issue? The under-representation of women in national parliaments poses a problem in terms of both the practice and the theory of politics. In practical terms, the under-representation of women in political leadership is even more remarkable when one realizes that women have succeeded in gaining access to other sectors of society in many European countries. Moreover, equality between men and women is now a leading political principle all over Europe. Taking part in decision-making however, in politics as well as in the private sector, typically remains a male privilege. This book explains the high level of current concern for the under-representation of women in politics. It explores the reasons behind recent favourable attitudes towards sharing political power with women in the Netherlands, and in other European countries. It identifies the many obstacles and strategies and it points out future expectations about the representation of women in Europe. Under which circumstances can political players be influenced to change institutions and procedures in favour of newcomers to politics. The current 'crisis of politics' opens a window of opportunity for changing the underlying male-biased structures This Book Explains The High Level Of Current Concern For The Under-representation Of Women In Politics. It Explores The Reasons Behind Recent Favourable Attitudes Towards Sharing Political Power With Women In The Netherlands, And In Other European Countries. It Identifies The Many Obstacles And Strategies And It Points Our Future Expectations About The Representation Of Women In Europe.--book Jacket. Introduction -- Political Representation Of Women In Fifteen European Countries -- An Explanatory Framework For Women's Political Representation -- The Netherlands: Political Rights For Women -- From Token To Player -- Explaining The Change In Attitude -- Empowerment Of Women In The 21st Century: Long-lasting Development Or Short-term Upheaval? -- Party Quotas, Parity And 'panda' Laws -- Window Of Opportunity: The Crisis Of Politics -- The Future Of European Gender Democracy. By Monique Leyenaar. Includes Bibliographical References (p. 301-314) And Index.