Police Conflict Management, Volume I : Challenges and Opportunities in the 21st Century

This book, as part of a two volume set, provides a broad overview of the current state of research on conflict management in law enforcement contexts globally, with a focus on contemporary challenges and opportunities in policing globally and ethical considerations. They cover a wide range of interactions between police and the public. This volume (I) focusses on the challenges and opportunities, examining topics such as police legitimacy, police culture, violence, mental health, community relations and crisis situations. Volume II focusses on police training and education and the learning settings needed for police to professionally tackle contemporary challenges. These books bring together leading research that is determining the state of the art in communication, de-escalation, use of force, and other contemporary issues in policing, with practical Key Takeaways in each chapter. They broaden the field by focussing on research which goes beyond the US, including in Scandinavia, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, the Republic of South Africa and Russia. Contents List of Figures List of Tables Introduction: Twenty-First-Century Policing—Between Evidence-Based Practice and Reflexivity 1 The Project 2 A Specific Look at This Volume References Police Trust and Legitimacy in Modern Societies: Fairness in Interactions as a Key 1 Trust in Modern, Complex Societies 2 Trust as a Predictor of Legitimacy 3 How Can Trust (Building) Be Explained? Trust in the Performance of the Police: Effectiveness and Procedural Fairness Policing Crowds: Social Identity in Group Contexts Policing Marginalised and Vulnerable Groups 4 Conclusion References Danger, Fighting, and Badassness: A Social Systems Perspective on Narratives and Codes in Police Conflict Management 1 Introduction 2 The Danger Narrative 3 The Fighting Narrative 4 A Social Systems Perspective on Narratives Narratives as Succesful Communcation Narratives as System Reproducing Elements 5 The Code of Badassness 6 Concluding Alternative Observations References Policing in the Light of Social Dominance Theory and the Social Distance Theory of Power 1 Policing as Social Interaction 2 An Explanatory Approach to Group-Based Hierarchies: Social Dominance Theory The Three Axes of Social Hierarchy Empiricism of Inequality Mechanisms of Group-Based Dominance Hierarchies 3 Social Distance Theory of Power Power and Social Distance Empiricism of Interaction Design Mechanisms of Power: Submission and Violence 4 SDT and SDTP: Police Perspectives SDTP and the Police Problem Analysis Potential Solutions SDT and Policing Problem Analysis Potential for Solutions 5 Conclusion References Psychological Aspects of the Use of Firearms by the Police 1 Introduction 2 Situation The Analytical Case of Germany Comparison with Europe 3 Aspects Prior to the Use of Firearms: Basic and Advanced Training 4 Aspects During the Use of Firearms Influences on the Decision to Shoot and Decision-Making Experiencing the Use of Firearms Hitting the Target 5 Consequences of the Use of Firearms Consequences for Targeted Persons Consequences for Shooters 6 Problems During the Use of Firearms Selectivity with Regard to Targeted Persons Unauthorized Use of Firearms Unintentional Discharge of Firearms Disarming of Police Officers Friendly Fire and Collateral Damage 7 Conclusion References Prevalence and Correlates of Violence Against Law Enforcement Officers in the United States: A National Portrait 1 Introduction The US Context for VAO Overall Rates of VAO and Trends Over Time Fatalities Against LEOs Agency and Community Risk Factors for VAO Gaps in the Literature 2 Methods Agency Survey Methodology and Sample Measures Incidents and Rates of Violence Against Officers (VAO) Incidents and Rates of Officers Shot at by Subjects (OIS) Covariates Agency Characteristics Community Characteristics Agency Policies, and Trainings Community Policing Analysis Plan Step 1: Fitting Intercept-Only Models to Determine the Best-Fitting Model Types Step 2: Conducting Multiple Imputation Step 3: Adding Covariates 3 Results Descriptive Statistics Violence Against Officers Subject Shootings of Officers 4 Discussion 5 Limitations 6 Conclusion References Police Conflict Management and the Phenomenon of Suicide-By-Cop in North America 1 Decision-Making and the Police Use of Force 2 Suicide-By-Cop 3 Why Suicide-By-Cop? 4 Research and Suicide-By-Cop 5 Suicide During Police Confrontations 6 The Police Response to Suicide-By-Cop Encounters 7 Sentinel Event Reviews References A Feminist Ethics of Care Approach to De-escalation in Policing 1 Introduction 2 Women in Policing A Brief History Explanations for Gender Differences 3 A Feminist Approach Ethics of Care The Feminist Ethics of Care Approach to De-escalation 4 Conclusion References Barriers to Effective De-escalation 1 Introduction: Why De-escalate? 2 Why De-escalation Is Neither Trained Nor Practiced Sufficiently Misconception 1: De-escalation Increases the Risk to Officer Safety Misconception 2: De-escalation Requires Collaboration 3 Barriers to De-escalation Input: How Officers Perceive, Process, and Make Sense of Information Action Bias Inattentional Bias, Cognitive Tunneling, and Task Fixation Attentional Bias, Confirmation Bias, and Availability Bias Summary: Input Output: How Officers Make Decisions and Act in Naturalistic Environments Organizational Context De-escalation Training: Lack of Conceptual and Didactical Clarity De-escalation Training: Insufficient Time and Resources Allocated Summary: Catch-22 4 Conclusion References Applying the Interpersonal Circumplex Model to De-escalative Communication in Police Services 1 Introduction 2 The Interpersonal Circumplex Model Basic Assumptions of Interpersonal Behaviour Measurement of Interpersonal Behaviour 3 Discussion Mindset Police Training 4 Conclusion References The Nonverbal Behavior and Appearance of Police Officers in the Police Service 1 Introduction 2 Nonverbal Behavior and Appearance 3 Effects of Police Officers’ Nonverbal Behavior and Appearance When in Service Perceptions and First Impressions Information Processing and Decision-Making Attitudes and Behavior Mission Outcomes 4 Effects of Attributes of Nonverbal Behavior and Appearance on Attitudes and Behavior Uniform Command and Control Devices Hair and Beard Style, Body Modifications, and Body Accessories Face Vocal Cues Body Movements, Gesture and Postures, Proxemics and Touch References Effective Police Negotiation: Synthesising the Strategies and Techniques that Promote Success Within Hostage or Crisis Situations 1 Introduction and Contextual Scene Setting 2 What Works When Negotiating with Hostage Takers or Individuals-in-Crisis and Why? Dissecting the Negotiation Process: The Journey to Success De-escalation of Intense Emotions Theoretical Principles and Research Underpinning the Need to De-escalate Emotions in Crisis Negotiation Contexts 3 Relationship/Rapport/Quasi-Therapeutic Alliance Building Theoretical Principles and Research Underpinning the Importance of Relationship Building Within Negotiation Contexts 4 Behavioural Influence and Behavioural Change Theoretical Underpinnings for Behavioural Influence Applied to Negotiation Contexts Models of Behaviour Change The Psychology of Persuasion Principles of Influence and Social Influence Tactics 5 Conclusion References Community Relations and Policing: A Communication Accommodation Theory Perspective 1 Police–Community Relations 2 Communication Accommodation Theory Accommodation Nonaccommodation 3 Implications 4 Conclusion References Policing Hate Rallies 1 Policing Hate Rallies 2 Literature Review Hate Hate Groups Hate Rallies 3 Three Case Studies Phoenix, Arizona Portland, Oregon Coeur d’Alene, Idaho 4 Discussion Theory and Research from the Study of Crowds Lessons from the Three Case Studies 5 Conclusion References Police Conflict Management in South Africa: An Autoethnographic Reconnaissance 1 Introduction 2 Background South Africa’s History: The Four Phases The Pre-Colonial Phase The Colonial Phase The Post-Colonial Phase: Apartheid The Post-Colonial Phase: Democratic Government Notes on the History Motivation for the Study 3 Description of Method Autoethnography as Method Why Autoethnography? Choosing Autoethnography as a Research Method for This Study The Research Narrative of This Chapter Two Genres Four Stories, Working Collectively Data Collection Data Analysis 4 The Narratives First Story: My Narrative Growing Up in Conflict: My Afrikaner Heritage Working in Conflict: My Life in the SAP Learning about Conflict: Becoming a Policing Acaprac at Unisa Working in Conflict Again: My Life in the SAPS Being an Independent Policing Pracademic Second Story: The Narratives of My Study Associates The Personal Dimension Visible in the Stories The Interpersonal Dimension of the Stories The Organisational Dimension of the Stories Ending the Stories 5 Insights The Emerging Theme Contextualising the Emerging Theme: Politics and Policing in Other Research Findings 6 Returning to the Research Question: What Have I Learnt? 7 Closing with the Fourth Story: Balancing Interwovenness with Reflection References Police Crowd Management in South Africa: Efforts and Challenges of De-escalation 1 Introduction 2 Background The Need for De-escalation in SA Public Order Policing in South Africa Regulatory Framework for SAPS 3 Methodology 4 Findings SAPS Response to Address Police Officer Violence when Responding to Protests Sympathy for Protestors Grasp for First Responder Responsibility Deployment of POP Units SAPS Efforts to Reform Public Order Policing Directives for Reduced Police Officer Violence and Officer Responses Challenges with Practical Implementation Improved Training Interventions Inhibiting the Police Culture of Seniority Ill-Prepared First Responders Sidelining Junior Operational Members Lack of Equipment Poor or Lack of Collaboration between Stations and POP Units 5 Discussion Positive Contributions Unintended Effects 6 Conclusion References Police Legitimacy in Russia: Explaining Millennials’ Obligation to Obey and Willingness to Cooperate 1 Introduction 2 Police Legitimacy, Obligation to Obey, and Willingness to Cooperate Police Legitimacy and Cooperation in Developing and Transitional Countries 3 Present Study Context: Policing in Russia Methodology Measurement of Variables 4 Findings 5 Discussion References Index