Plants As Medicine and Aromatics : Pharmacognosy, Ecology and Conservation

Since ancient times, plants serve as a valuable source of traditional herbal medicines. Unlike modern medicines, herbal medicines have consistently demonstrated health advantages, including a lack of serious adverse side effects, long-lasting curative impacts and overall cost-effectiveness. Even today, with various modern pharmaceutical medicines commonly available, plant-based medicines and aromatics are increasingly in demand throughout the health sector globally, where they are used not only for the treatment of disease, but also, preventatively for maintaining good health. People are seeking alternatives to modern medical treatments turning to phytomedicine for primary health care. However, an inadvertent consequence of this increased demand for herbal medicines has resulted in medicinal plants being threatened due to their initial small population sizes, narrow distribution areas, habitat specificity, and increasingly destructive non-sustainable harvesting. This book critically examines and reviews the status of medicinal plants and includes several important case studies of representative plant species. It contains information on aspects concerning phytochemistry, natural products, cultivation, conservation techniques, environmental interactions, and therapeutic features of medicinal aromatic plants. Features Evaluates plants as medicine and aromatics covering pharmacognosy and ecology of plants having therapeutic values. Discusses how plants can play a role in treatment of diseases and as potential therapeutics standards for maintaining good health. Presents conventional and contemporary approaches to conservation of such plants with commercial feasibility. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Foreword Preface Author/editor biographies List of Contributors Chapter 1 Medicinal Characterization and Phytochemical Constituents of Selected Native Plants of Guyana, South America: A Review 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Importance of Medicinal Plants 1.2.1 Cymbopogon citratus 1.2.2 Cajanus cajan 1.2.3 Plectranthus amboinicus 1.2.4 Cassia alata 1.2.5 Senna bicapsularis 1.2.6 Pityrogramma calomelanos 1.3 Antimicrobial Activity of Selected Medicinal Plants 1.4 Conclusion References Chapter 2 Ex-situ Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Using In Vitro Techniques 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Plant Growth Regulators Used in Conservation and In Vitro Studies Using Biotechnological Methods 2.3 Studies on the Conservation of MAPs by In Vitro Techniques 2.4 Conclusions References Chapter 3 Conservation and Sustainable Management of Wild Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Species 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Medicinal Plants and Their Uses 3.3 Worldwide Diversity of Medicinal Plants 3.4 Threats to Medicinal Plants 3.5 Endangered Medicinal Plants 3.6 Examples of North American Native Species at Risk 3.6.1 Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng) 3.6.2 Taxus species (yew) 3.6.3 Cimicifuga racemosa (black cohosh) 3.6.4 Hydrastis canadensis (goldenseal) 3.7 Conservation and Sustainable Utilization Overexploitation and harmful bioprospecting are proposed to be curtailed by creating strategies such as: 3.8 Conservation Strategies for Medicinal Plants 3.8.1 Legislation 3.8.2 In Situ or On-Site Conservation 3.8.2.1 Biosphere Reserves 3.8.2.2 National Parks 3.8.3 Ex Situ or Off-Site Conservation 3.8.3.1 Field Gene Bank (Field Repository/Clonal Repository) 3.9 Conclusion References Chapter 4 Use of Plants as Medicines and Aromatics by Indigenous Communities of Morocco: Pharmacognosy, Ecology and Conservation List of Abbreviations 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Global Importance of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 4.3 Conservation Aspects of Herbs 4.4 Transmission of Medicinal Plant Knowledge in Morocco 4.5 Ecological and Floristic Diversity in Morocco 4.6 Production and Trade in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Morocco 4.7 Organization of the Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sector in Morocco 4.8 Strategy for the Development of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Morocco 4.9 The Pharmacopoeia of Morocco 4.10 Legal Framework of Moroccan Herbalism and Phytotherapy 4.11 Conclusion 4.12 Conflict of Interests References Chapter 5 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants from Sudan: Traditional Uses, Pharmacology, and Phytoconstituents 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Global Reputation of Traditional Medicine 5.3 Traditional Sudanese Medicine 5.4 Distribution of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Sudan 5.5 Conclusion References Chapter 6 Rhus coriaria: A Review of Phytochemical and Biopharmaceutical Properties 6.1 Introduction 6.2 General Composition, Mineral and Vitamin Content of R. coriaria 6.2.1 Fruits: Main Source of Organic Chemical Components of R. coriaria 6.2.2 Leaves: Another Significant Chemical Resource From R. coriaria 6.3 Pharmacological Effects of R. coriaria 6.3.1 Antimicrobial Effects 6.3.1.1 Antibacterial Effects 6.3.1.2 Antiviral Effects 6.3.1.3 Antifungal Effects 6.3.2 Antidiabetic Effects 6.3.3 Antioxidant Properties and Anticancer Effects 6.3.4 Cardioprotective Effects 6.3.5 Anti-Inflammatory Activities 6.3.6 Toxicity 6.4 Conclusion References Chapter 7 Isolation of Bioactive Compounds From Medicinal Plants to Treat Neurological Disease 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Epidemiology of Neurological Diseases 7.3 History of Traditional Uses of Plants to Treat Neurological Disease 7.4 Active Constituents from Plants and Their Activity in Neurological Diseases 7.4.1 Berberine 7.4.2 Piperine 7.4.3 Quercetin 7.4.4 Kaempferol 7.4.5 Gallic Acid 7.4.6 Curcumin 7.5 Conclusion References Chapter 8 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants against Paratuberculosis 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Traits of MAP 8.2.1 Genetic Makeup 8.2.2 Effect of Heat 8.2.3 Effect of Ultraviolet Light 8.2.4 Vulnerability to MAP 8.3 Pathogenesis of MAP 8.4 Transmission of MAP 8.5 Potential Anti-MAP Plants 8.5.1 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 8.5.2 Anti-Tubercular Properties 8.5.3 Immunomodulatory Properties 8.6 Mechanism of Action of Various Phytochemicals 8.6.1 Anti-Inflammatory Phytochemicals 8.6.2 Anti-Tubercular Phytochemicals 8.6.3 Immunomodulatory Phytochemicals 8.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 9 Standardization and Evaluation of Medicinal Properties of Cleome ambylocarpa Barr. and Murb. (Cleome africana) 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Chemical Constituents 9.3 Pharmacological and Toxicological Studies 9.4 Antinociceptive Activity 9.4.1 Acetic Acid-Induced Writhing Method 9.5 Effects on the Cardiovascular System 9.5.1 Effect on Blood Pressure and Heart Rate (Figure 9.6, Figure 9.7, and Figure 9.12) 9.6 Effect on Isolated Rat Fundus 9.6.1 In Vitro Experiment 9.7 Evaluation of Sex-Stimulant Activity 9.7.1 Copulatory Behavior in Mice 9.8 Toxicity Studies 9.8.1 Acute Toxicity 9.8.2 Gross Behavioral Studies 9.8.3 LD50 Studies 9.8.4 Cleome Antidepressant Activity 9.8.4.1 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 9.9 Conclusion References Chapter 10 The Concept and Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: History, Pharmacognosy, Ecology, and Conservation 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Current Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 10.2.1 History of Medicinal Plants 10.2.2 Pharmacognosy 10.2.3 Ecology and Plant Diversity 10.2.4 Conservation 10.3 Conclusion References Chapter 11 Effect of Abiotic Stress on Production of Secondary Metabolites in Plants 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Abiotic Stress and Their Effects on Biosynthetic Pathways 11.2.1 Shikimic Acid Pathway 11.2.2 Acetate Pathway 11.2.3 Amino Acid Pathway 11.3 Effect of Abiotic Stress on the Production of Secondary Metabolites 11.3.1 Water Stress and Plant Secondary Metabolites 11.3.2 Influence of Light on Secondary Metabolites 11.3.3 Salinity Stress and Plant Secondary Metabolites 11.3.4 Heavy Metal Stress and Secondary Metabolites 11.3.5 Temperature Level and Secondary Metabolites 11.3.6 Secondary Metabolites in Relation to Other Abiotic Stresses 11.4 Summary and Conclusions References Chapter 12 Opportunities and Challenges for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Japan 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Japan 12.2.1 History 12.2.2 Conventional Use of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Japan 12.2.3 Current Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Japan 12.3 Multifold Uses of Native Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 12.3.1 Native Medicinal Plants 12.3.1.1 Hokkaido Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus) 12.3.1.2 Oita Saffron (Crocus sativus) 12.3.1.3 Kagoshima Mulberry (Morus alba) 12.3.1.4 Okinawa Shell ginger (Alpinia zerumbet) 12.3.2 Native Aromatic Plants 12.3.2.1 Camphor (Lindera umbellata) 12.3.2.2 Hokkaido Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis) 12.3.2.3 Aomori hiba (Thujopsis dolabrata) 12.3.2.4 Kiso Hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) 12.3.2.5 Kochi Yuzu (Citrus junos) 12.4 Future Challenges References Chapter 13 Ecological, Phytochemical and Pharmacological Profile of Melissa officinalis L., an Aromatic Medicinal Plant 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Taxonomic Classification 13.3 Vernacular Names of Melissa officinalis 13.4 Geographical Distribution and Ecology 13.5 Pharmacognostic Description 13.5.1 Macroscopic Characteristics 13.5.2 Microscopic Characteristics 13.5.3 Cultivation and Collection 13.5.4 Phytochemical Constituents 13.6 Pharmacological Activities 13.6.1 Cardiovascular Effects 13.6.2 Antianxiety Effect 13.6.3 Neuroprotective Effects 13.6.4 Effects on Memory and Improving Concentration 13.6.5 Antidepressant Effect 13.6.6 Anti-Inflammatory and Antinociceptive Effects 13.6.7 Hypoglycemic Effects 13.6.8 Metabolic Effects 13.6.9 Cytotoxic Effects 13.6.10 Antioxidant Activity 13.6.11 Antimicrobial Activity 13.6.12 Antiviral Activity 13.6.13 Antispasmodic Activity 13.6.14 Anti-Angiogenic Effects 13.6.15 Anti-Epileptic Activity 13.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective References Chapter 14 Plants as Biomedicine for Skin Diseases in Pakistan 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Skin Diseases—Herbal Treatment References Chapter 15 Chemical Characterization and Biological Analysis of the Essential Oil Derived from Marlierea eugeniopsoides on the Coast of Paraná, Brazil 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Bioprospecting and the Use of Natural Resources—Search for Bioactive Substances 15.3 Natural Products—Medicinal Plants, Essential Oils, and the Development of Pharmaceuticals 15.4 The Myrtaceae Family—Essential Oil Extraction, Chemical Characterization, and Associated Biological Activities. 15.5 Collecting the Plant Material, Extraction of the Essential Oil, and Analysis of the Chemical Composition 15.5.1 Results and Discussion 15.5.1.1 Enzymatic Inhibitory Activity of Essential Oils From the Species Marlierea eugeniopsoides Collected on the Coast of Paraná, Brazil 15.6 Conclusion References Chapter 16 Production of Bioactive Secondary Metabolites in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Cultivated in Turkiye 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 Bioactive Compounds in Selected Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 16.1.2 Biotechnological Methods Used in the Production of Secondary Metabolites 16.1.3 Production of Secondary Compounds from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Cultivated in Turkiye by Biotechnological Methods 16.2 Conclusion References Chapter 17 Use of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Metabolites in Cosmetics and Skin Diseases 17.1 Introduction 17.1.1 Secondary Metabolites Phenolics Alkaloids Saponins Terpenes Lipids Carbohydrates 17.1.2 Functions of Secondary Metabolites 17.2 Secondary Metabolites in Cosmetics 17.2.1 Some Secondary Metabolites Used for Cosmetic Purposes Acacia concinna DC. (Mimosaceae): Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl (Verbenaceae) Curcuma amada Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) Curcuma longa Linn. (Zingiberaceae) Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (Euphorbiaceae) Rubia cordifolia Linn. (Rubiaceae) 17.3 Skin Diseases and Secondary Metabolites 17.3.1 Acne vulgaris and Secondary Metabolites Alpha‐mangostin Ampelopsin Artonin E Berberine Curcumin Ellagic Acid Fustin Lupeol Myricetin Resveratrol Terchebulin Ursolic acid 17.3.2 Atopic Dermatitis and Secondary Metabolites 17.4 Conclusion REFERENCES Chapter 18 Nutraceutical Perspectives of the Coastal Sand Dune Wild Legume Sesbania bispinosa 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Nutritional Evaluation 18.2.1 Seed Source and Process 18.2.2 Proximal and Mineral Analysis 18.2.3 Protein Fractions and Amino Acid Analysis 18.2.4 Protein Digestibility 18.3 Evaluation of Bioactive Components 18.4 Data Analysis 18.5 Seed Features and Nutritional Qualities 18.5.1 Seed Features 18.5.2 Proximal and Mineral Composition 18.5.3 Protein Fractions and Amino Acids 18.6 Bioactive Components 18.7 Discussion 18.7.1 Proximal Qualities 18.7.2 Mineral Composition 18.7.3 Protein Bioavailability 18.7.4 Fatty Acid Composition 18.7.5 Bioactive Components 18.8 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 19 General Plant Geography Formation of the Aegean Region and the Use of Aegean Herbs in Local Cuisine and for Medicinal Purposes 19.1 Introduction 19.2 General Plant Geography and Formation of the Aegean Region 19.2.1 Plant Geography of Kütahya Plain and Its Surroundings 19.2.2 Plant Geography of the Area Between Gediz and Büyük Menderes 19.2.3 Plant Geography of the Area between Büyük Menderes River and Upper Dalaman Stream 19.2.4 Plant Geography of the Upper Büyük Menderes Basin 19.2.5 Plant Geography of the Area Between Büyük Menderes and Gökova 19.2.6 Plant Geography of the Upper Gediz Basin 19.2.7 Plant Geography of Honaz and its Surroundings 19.3 Use of Aegean Herbs in Local Cuisine and for Medicinal Purposes 19.4 Conclusion References Chapter 20 Evaluation of Medicinal and Ecological Aspects of Pteridophytes in Turkiye 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Current Status of the Systematics of Pteridophytes in Turkiye 20.3 Habitat-Based Ecological Grouping of Pteridophytes in Turkiye 20.3.1 Aquatic Forms (Free-Floating) 20.3.2 Semi-Aquatic Forms 20.3.3 Rock Forms 20.3.4 Epiphytic Forms 20.3.5 Terrestrial Forms 20.3.6 Meadow Forms 20.4 Traditional Medicinal Uses 20.5 Conclusions References Appendix 20.1 Re-revised Checklist of Pteridophytes of Turkiye. Index Since the dawn of civilization, plants have been ubiquitously used as a valuable source of traditional,plant-based, “herbal” medicine. Unlike modern medicine, herbal medicines have several majoradvantages, including general absence of serious, adverse side effects, long-lasting curative impact,and overall cost effectiveness. Even today, plant-based medicines and aromatics are increasingly indemand throughout the health sector globally, which involves their use not only for the treatment ofdiseases but also as potential therapeutic standards for maintaining good health. Almost two-thirdsof the world’s population directly seek alternatives to Western medical treatments, which are freefrom side effects, and thus these consumers depend on phytomedicines for primary healthcare.However, an inadvertent consequence of this increased demand is that the occurrence of manymedicinal and aromatic plants has become threatened due to their very small wild population size,narrow distribution area, habitat specifcity, and destructive way of harvesting; only a few studieshave been undertaken on their conservation, ecology, and pharmacognosy of individual MAPs.The topics of interest of this book include biodiversiy, biotechnology, ecology, nanotechnology,and pharmacognosy, as well as in-situ and ex-situ conservation of aromatic and medicinal plants.Since plants are often very geographically isolated, this book also explores the aboriginal medicinetraditions of countries and cultures. Hopefully, this book will prove to be a great source of informationon recent research trends in medicinal plants and aromatics. "Since antiquity plants have always been a valuable source of traditional "herbal" medicines. Unlike modern medicines, herbal medicines have consistently demonstrated several major advantages, including a lack of serious adverse side effects, long-lasting curative impact, and an overall cost-effectiveness. Even today, with a plethora of modern pharmaceutical medicines commonly available, plant-based medicines and aromatics are increasingly in demand throughout the health sector globally, where they are used not only for the treatment of disease but also preventatively for maintaining good health. Thus, currently almost two-thirds of the world's population willingly seek side-effect-free alternatives to modern medical treatments and thus depend on phytomedicine for their primary health care. However, an inadvertent consequence of this increased demand for herbal medicines has seen many medicinal plants become threatened due to their initial small population sizes, narrow distribution area, habitat specificity, and increasingly destructive non-sustainable harvesting. In addition current information on the conservation, ecology and pharmacognosy of herbal medicinal plants is extremely limited. Thus, this book critically examines and reviews the current status of these aspects and includes several important case studies of representative plant species"-- Provided by publisher