Planning for Equitable Urban Agriculture in the United States: Future Directions for a New Ethic in City Building

This open access book, building on the legacy of food systems scholar and advocate, Jerome Kaufman, examines the potential and pitfalls of planning for urban agriculture (UA) in the United States, especially in how questions of ethics and equity are addressed. The book is organized into six sections. Written by a team of scholars and practitioners, the book covers a comprehensive array of topics ranging from theory to practice of planning for equitable urban agriculture. Section 1 makes the case for re-imagining agriculture as central to urban landscapes, and unpacks why, how, and when planning should support UA, and more broadly food systems. Section 2, written by early career and seasoned scholars, provides a theoretical foundation for the book. Section 3, written by teams of scholars and community partners, examines how civic agriculture is unfolding across urban landscapes, led largely by community organizations. Section 4, written by planning practitionersand scholars, documents local government planning tied to urban agriculture, focusing especially on how they address questions of equity. Section 5 explores UA as a locus of pedagogy of equity. Section 6 places the UA movement in the US within a global context, and concludes with ideas and challenges for the future. The book concludes with a call for planning as public nurturance – an approach that can be illustrated through urban agriculture. Planning as public nurturance is a value-explicit process that centers an ethics of care, especially protecting the interests of publics that are marginalized. It builds the capacity of marginalized groups to authentically co-design and participate in planning/policy processes. Such a planning approach requires that progress toward equitable outcomes is consistently evaluated through accountability measures. And, finally, such an approach requires attention to structural and institutional inequities. Addressing these four elements is more likelyto create a condition under which urban agriculture may be used as a lever in the planning and development of more just and equitable cities. This is an open access book. This is an open access book. Foreword References Preface Acknowledgments Contents About the Editors List of Call Out Boxes List of Figures List of Tables Chapter 1: Planning for Equitable Urban Agriculture: Opportunities and Quandaries References Part I: Theories and Foundations: Ethics, Urban Agriculture, and Planning Chapter 2: Theories and Foundations: Ethics, Urban Agriculture, and Planning References Chapter 3: The Food System: A Stranger to the Planning Field 3.1 Most Planning Literature Ignores Food Issues 3.2 A Survey of 22 Planning Agencies 3.3 Reasons for Limited Attention 3.4 The Importance of Food System Issues 3.5 How Can Planners Strengthen the Food System? 3.5.1 Compile Data on the Community Food System 3.5.2 Analyze Connections Between Food and Other Planning Concerns 3.5.3 Assess the Impact of Current Planning on the Local Food System 3.5.4 Integrate Food Security into Community Goals 3.5.5 Educate Future Planners About Food System Issues 3.6 Conclusions References Chapter 4: “Farming Inside Cities” – A Look Back After Two Decades 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Objectives of Farming Inside Cities 4.2.1 Value Capture 4.2.2 Redefinition of Policy Maker 4.3 Urban Agriculture in the Late 1990s 4.4 Concurrent Urban Agriculture Research 4.5 Research and Writing, Theory and Advocacy 4.6 Outcomes of the Study 4.7 Looking Back After Two Decades References Chapter 5: Urban Agriculture as a Public Good: Valuing Farming and Gardening in Philadelphia and Chicago 5.1 Urban Agriculture Research and Practice: Visions and Values 5.2 Philadelphia 5.3 Chicago 5.4 Conclusion References Chapter 6: The Intersection of Planning, Urban Agriculture, and Food Justice: A Review of the Literature 6.1 Synthesizing the Multidisciplinary Literature on Food Justice, Urban Agriculture, and Planning 6.2 Defining and Characterizing Food Justice 6.3 Urban Agriculture’s Diverse Forms 6.4 The Social Benefits of Urban Agriculture 6.5 Limitations to the Positive Food Justice Impacts of Urban Agriculture 6.6 Planning and Urban Agriculture 6.7 A Brief Assessment of Urban Agriculture Planning and Food Justice 6.8 Orienting Urban Agriculture Planning for Food Justice: Some Suggestions 6.9 The Case of Seattle: An Equity Lens and Urban Agriculture 6.10 Recognizing Urban Agriculture’s Limits and Potential for Food Justice References Chapter 7: A Polycentric Vision for Governing the Urban Food Commons 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Governing the Urban Food Commons: Beyond Market, State, Centralized, and Decentralized Models 7.3 Polycentric UFCs: Governing UFCs Through an Institutional Mix 7.4 Achieving Polycentric Order in Governing UFCs: A Framework for Analysis and Design 7.5 Case Study: Chicago’s NeighborSpace Illustrates Emerging Polycentric Governance of UFCs 7.6 Conclusion References Part II: Practical Ethics: Urban Agriculture in US Cities Chapter 8: Practical Ethics: Urban Agriculture in US Cities 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Historical Framework 8.3 Bridging Barriers 8.4 Nested Approach to Reimagining Healthy Socio-ecological Systems References Chapter 9: Codification and Inclusivity of Landmark Urban Agriculture Initiatives in Madison and Dane County, Wisconsin 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Urban Farming Initiatives 9.2.1 The Case of Troy Gardens 9.2.2 FairShare CSA Coalition 9.3 Community Garden Initiatives 9.4 Local Government Policy and Planning Landscape 9.4.1 Dane County Food Council 9.4.2 Madison Food Policy Council 9.5 COVID-19 Response 9.6 Inclusivity 9.7 Codification 9.8 Conclusion References Chapter 10: The Practical Ethics of Urban Agriculture in Public Housing 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Public Housing and Urban Agriculture 10.3 Case 1: Farms at NYCHA 10.3.1 Urban Agriculture as a Response to NYCHA Challenges 10.3.2 Youth Development and Workforce Training 10.3.3 Landscape Transformation 10.3.4 Community Engagement 10.3.5 Diet and Health 10.4 Case 2: Food System Initiatives at the Denver Housing Authority 10.4.1 Denver: Opportunities and Growth 10.4.2 Denver Housing Authority Theory of Change 10.4.3 Ethics of Agriculture Initiatives at the Denver Housing Authority 10.4.4 Denver Housing Authority Redevelopment 10.5 Food System Initiatives within the Denver Housing Authority 10.5.1 Community Gardens 10.5.2 Urban Farms 10.5.3 Food Distribution 10.5.4 Education and Job Training 10.5.5 Food Hubs 10.5.6 Challenges and Opportunities 10.5.7 Outcomes and Next Steps in Denver 10.6 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Ethical Lessons from Yesteryear: A History of Black Buffalo’s Struggle for Food and Equity 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Black Student Union: Using Food as a Lever for Equity in Buffalo 11.2.1 Feeding the Way to Freedom 11.2.2 Ethics Derived from Praxis 11.3 The Spectrum of Black Ownership 11.4 Learning from the Past and Hopes for the Future: The Story of the African Heritage Food Cooperative 11.5 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Toward a Restorative Planning Ethic: Race, History, and Food Planning in Albany, Georgia 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Research Approach and Methods of Data Collection 12.3 Case Study: Albany, Georgia 12.3.1 Food Planning and Community Empowerment: Evolution of Southwest Georgia Project 12.4 Lessons from a Historical Lens on Food Planning in Albany 12.5 Toward a Restorative Planning Ethic References Part III: Public Policy Responses to Urban Agriculture Chapter 13: Municipal Planning Response to Urban Agriculture: Equity is Not Quite on the Table References Chapter 14: Jerry Kaufman and Food Systems Planning Leadership: The APA Policy Guide as a Microcosm of Innovative Collaboration 14.1 Our Individual Food Journeys 14.2 The Denver APA National Conference: The Genesis of the Food Policy Guide Collaborations 14.3 Themes from the Food Policy Guide Collaboration References Chapter 15: Prospects for an Enduring Agriculture in the Rustbelt: A Tale of Two Cities 15.1 Agriculture in Cleveland and Detroit 15.2 Access to Vacant Land for Agriculture in Cleveland and Detroit 15.2.1 Cleveland Programs for Vacant Land 15.2.2 Detroit Programs for Vacant Land 15.3 Vacant Land Governance, Planning and Politics: Implications for Agriculture 15.4 Conclusion: Lessons from Agriculture in Cleveland and Detroit References Chapter 16: Urban Agriculture Embedded in a Food Systems Approach: The Baltimore Story 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 Socioeconomic and Health Disparities 16.1.2 Baltimore’s Food System 16.2 Setting the Stage for a Food Policy Agenda 16.2.1 Governance and Organizational Structure 16.2.2 Staffing 16.2.3 Organizational Engagement 16.2.4 Resident Engagement 16.3 Plans and Policies Strengthening Baltimore’s Urban Food System and Urban Agriculture 16.3.1 Urban Agriculture Plan 16.3.2 Urban Agriculture Zoning & Permitting 16.3.3 Land Leasing 16.3.4 Water Access Program 16.3.5 Soil Safety Policy 16.3.6 Urban Agriculture Incentives 16.3.7 2019 Sustainability Plan 16.4 Challenges 16.4.1 Staffing and Funding 16.4.2 Resident Voices 16.4.3 Land Access 16.5 Insights & Lessons 16.5.1 Establishing Food and Farming as City Government Priorities 16.5.2 Food Environment Mapping as a Tool 16.5.3 Framing of an Issue 16.5.3.1 Urban Agriculture 16.5.3.2 Food Access 16.5.4 Mainstreaming Urban Food Systems in Planning 16.5.5 Baltimore’s Emergency Food Response 16.6 Conclusion References Chapter 17: Barriers in Community-Led Initiatives: A Case Study of Urban Agriculture Policy in Denver, Colorado 17.1 Introduction 17.1.1 Food Policy Councils and the Policy-Making Process 17.2 Case Study: Urban Agriculture and Planning-to-Implementation Barriers in Denver, Colorado 17.3 Food Policy in Denver 17.3.1 Denver Sustainable Food Policy Council and Denver Food Vision 17.3.2 Urban Agriculture and the City Food, City Land Policy Advisory 17.4 Discussion 17.5 Implications for Planning Practice References Chapter 18: Integrating Equity as a Central Theme in Urban Agriculture: The Case of the City of Seattle, Washington 18.1 Background 18.2 Socioeconomic Disparities 18.3 Race, Social Justice, Health and Equity 18.4 Long-Standing Relationship with Local Food 18.5 Towards a Systems View of Food 18.6 Expansion of the P-Patch Community Garden Program 18.7 Promoting Food Production: Urban Agriculture Zoning Regulations 18.8 Subsidizing Local Food: The Fresh Bucks Program and the Farm to Table Partnership Program 18.9 Establishing a Blueprint for Action: Seattle Food Action Plan 18.10 Rainier Beach Urban Farm and Wetlands Project 18.11 Barriers to Integrating Food in the Culture of City Government 18.12 Conclusion References Chapter 19: The Relational Infrastructure of Food System Policy Development 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Food System Policy as Relational Governance 19.3 Data and Methods 19.4 Study Site Descriptions 19.5 Findings and Their Implications for Equity and Ethics 19.5.1 Motivation for Developing Interpersonal Relationships 19.5.2 The Relational Environment of Collaboration 19.5.3 Relationship-Building through Listening with Humility 19.6 Conclusion References Part IV: Pedagogy of Capacity Building Through Urban Agriculture Chapter 20: Cultivating an Equitable, Just, and Compassionate Food Systems Pedagogy 20.1 History of Food Systems Planning Pedagogy 20.2 From Community Engagement to Equity and Justice References Chapter 21: On Collaboration in Teaching a Food Planning Course Chapter 22: Fertile Ground: Reflections on the Impacts and Implications of an Early University Food System Plan 22.1 Introduction: Food Systems Planning at the University of Wisconsin-Madison 22.1.1 URPL and the Planning Workshop 22.2 Fertile Ground: Planning for the Madison/Dane County Food System 22.3 Participant Reflections on Innovation in Workshop Teaching: The Food System as Focus of a Planning Workshop, 20 Years Later 22.3.1 How Did Your Participation in the URPL Food Systems Planning Workshop Influence You Personally and Professionally? 22.3.2 The Food Systems Planning Workshop Was Only the Third of Its Kind Ever Performed: What Was Your Sense of the Buy-In or Acceptance About the Topic from Your Fellow Students? Was There Resistance to Exploring this (at the Time) New Avenue of P 22.3.2.1 What Is Your Sense of this Feeling in the Field Now? Has the Level of Interest or Resistance Changed? 22.3.3 Have any of the Recommendations in the Final Report Been Implemented? 22.3.4 Do You Think that the Workshop and Report Contributed to Helping Establish Food Systems Planning as a Branch of the Broader Planning Discipline? 22.3.5 What Do You Think About the Studio or Workshop Model for Planning Education, and More Specifically Advancing New Ideas, Like Food Systems Planning, in Studios? 22.3.5.1 Was It Professionally or Personally Beneficial to Examine Something New? Why? 22.3.6 Did Working on Food Systems Shape Your Thinking About Values or Ethics, and If So, How? If Not, Why Not? 22.3.7 Did Working with Jerry Provide Any Specific Insights for You? 22.4 Conclusion References Chapter 23: Revisiting Food for Growth: Lessons from a Food Systems Studio 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Experiential Learning and Food Systems Planning 23.2.1 Experiential Learning Education 23.2.2 Food Systems Education 23.2.3 Reflections on Experiential Learning in Food Systems 23.3 Methods 23.4 The Buffalo Experience 23.4.1 Massachusetts Avenue Project 23.4.2 West Buffalo 23.5 Studio as Part of UB Curriculum (in 2003) 23.6 Food for Growth Studio: Content, Process, and Impact 23.7 Lessons Learned 23.7.1 Food Systems Studios and Student, Community, and Faculty Pathways 23.7.2 Ethics and Equity in the Studio Experience 23.7.3 Limitations and Challenges of Community-Engaged Food Systems Planning Studios 23.8 Directions for the Future 23.8.1 Food Systems Planning Studios 23.8.2 Recommendations 23.8.2.1 Building Authentic Community Partnerships 23.8.2.2 Building on Community Knowledge References Chapter 24: Critical Pedagogy in North American Food Systems Planning: Looking Back to Look Ahead 24.1 Looking Back: Early Themes Identified by Food Systems Planning Educators 24.2 Looking Ahead: The Evolution of Food Systems Pedagogy in Planning and Related Disciplines 24.3 Interdisciplinarity 24.4 Social Justice and Ethics 24.5 Community-University Research Partnerships and Community-Based Methods 24.6 Systems Thinking 24.7 Conclusions References Chapter 25: The Art of the Town-Gown Dance: Healing Legacies of Harm in our Food System through Equitable Pedagogy 25.1 Introduction 25.2 A New Framework for Teaching Urban Agriculture: Equitable Engagement Through the Classroom 25.2.1 A Case Study: Incorporating Community Engagement into a Food System Planning Class 25.3 Understanding Equity in the Context of University Pedagogy 25.4 Preparing Students for Community Engagement 25.5 The Inherent Challenge of Equitable Pedagogy 25.6 New Framework for Equitable Pedagogy 25.7 Proposed Core Principles for University-Based Community-Centered Equitable Engagement 25.7.1 Core Faculty Responsibilities for Successful Equitable Pedagogy Include Co-Creation, Co-Ownership, and Equitable Compensation 25.8 Conclusion References Part V: Considerations for the Future Chapter 26: Toward City- and People-Centered Food Policy 26.1 The Poverty of Anti-poverty 26.2 Fuel for Thought References Chapter 27: The Urgent Role of Urban Agriculture and Food Systems Planning in the Global South 27.1 The History and Extent of UA in the Global South 27.2 UA’s Impact in the Global South 27.2.1 Impacts on Food Security 27.2.2 Benefits to Income Security 27.2.3 Environmental Impacts 27.3 The Role of Urban Planners and Policymakers in UA’s Expansion 27.4 The Contribution of Wider Food Systems Planning Trends to Food System Inequities 27.5 Conclusion References Chapter 28: Healing the Racial Divide in Urban Agriculture 28.1 Methods 28.2 Recognizing the History of Black Leadership in Urban Agriculture 28.3 Whiteness in Urban Agriculture 28.4 Broadening the Definition of Return on Investment 28.5 Serving Commercial Viability or Supplying Food? 28.6 Reframing the Value of UA 28.7 Recommendations 28.8 Recommendation: Ensure Local Plans and Funding for UA Engage and Respond to Community Input 28.9 Recommendation: Conduct a Critical Analysis of Policies to Ensure that Racial Inequality in Access to Land and Resources Is Addressed when Creating New Urban Agriculture Policies 28.10 Recommendation: Focus Resources and Grant Funding in Support of all Benefits (Social, Economic, Ecological) of Urban Agriculture and Promote Sustainable Development of Urban Agriculture 28.11 Recommendation: Recognize that Urban Farms Can Drive Neighborhood Revitalization and Increase the Tax Base, with Positive and Negative Consequences to Local Community Residents 28.12 What Do Urban Farmers of Color Want? References Chapter 29: Planning [for Urban Agriculture] as Public Nurturance 29.1 Planning as Public Nurturance Protects Interests of Those Who Are Marginalized 29.2 Planning as Public Nurturance Reduces Information Asymmetry and Builds Capacity in Marginalized Communities 29.3 Planning as Public Nurturance Complements Implementation with Accountability 29.4 Public Nurturance Planning Centers Equity and Ethics in the Design of Institutions References Index This book examines the potential and pitfalls of planning for urban agriculture (UA) in the United States, especially in how questions of ethics and equity are addressed. It builds on the legacy of food systems scholar and advocate, Jerome Kaufman. Divided into six sections, the book covers topics such as re-imagining agriculture as central to urban landscapes, and discusses why, how, and when planning should support UA, and more broadly food systems; providing a theoretical foundation for the book including writings by early and seasoned scholars; examines civic agriculture across urban landscapes; planning responses to these efforts; exploring UA as a locus of pedagogy of equity; placing the urban agriculture movement in the US within a global context and concludes with ideas and challenges for the future. The book is useful for planning professionals who want to strengthen agriculture and food systems in their jurisdictions. This is an open access book.