Pious pilgrims, discerning travellers, curious tourists : changing patterns of travel to the Middle East from Medieval to modern times

Pious Pilgrims, Discerning Travellers, Curious Tourists: Changing patterns of travel to the Middle East from medieval to modern times comprises a varied collection of seventeen papers presented at the biennial conference of the Association for the Study of Travel in Egypt and the Near East (ASTENE) held in York in July 2019, which together will provide the reader with a fascinating introduction to travel in and to the Middle East over more than a thousand years. As in previous ASTENE volumes, the material presented ranges widely, from Ancient Egyptian sites through medieval pilgrims to tourists and other travellers of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The papers embody a number of different traditions, including not only actual but also fictional travel experiences, as well as pilgrimage or missionary narratives reflecting quests for spiritual wisdom as well as geographical knowledge. They also reflect the shifting political and cultural relations between Europe and the Near and Middle East, and between the different religions of the area, as seen and described by travellers both from within and from outside the region over the centuries. The men and women travellers discussed travelled for a wide variety of reasons — religious, commercial, military, diplomatic, or sometimes even just for a holiday! — but whatever their primary motivations, they were almost always also inspired by a sense of curiosity about peoples and places less familiar than their own. By recording their experiences, whether in words or in art, they have greatly contributed to our understanding of what has shaped the world we live in. As Ibn Battuta, one of the greatest of medieval Arab travellers, wrote: ‘Travelling — it leaves you speechless, then turns you into a storyteller!’ Table of Contents Introduction – Paul and Janet Starkey 1. Pilgrimage as Travel – Jacke Phillips 2. Ibn Jubayr’s Riḥla Reconsidered – Paul Starkey 3. ‘Gardens of Paradise’ – Janet Starkey 4. ‘Wady Ghrásheca’: an unknown Christian site in Sir Gardner Wilkinson’s unpublished manuscripts from the Eastern Desert – Jan Ciglenečki & Blaž Zabel 5. Exploring the Ottoman Empire: the travels of Peter Mundy (1597– c .1667) in Turkey 1617–1620 – Jennifer Scarce 6. With a radius most accurately divided into 10,000 parts: John Greaves and his scientific survey of Egypt in 1638–1639 – Ronald E. Zitterkopf 7. Dimitrie Cantemir, the ‘Orpheus of the Turkish Empire’ (1673– 1723) – Cristina Erck 8. The Artist William Page (1794–1872) and his travels in Greece and western Turkey in the first half of the nineteenth century – Brian J. Taylor 9. Jacob Röser: a Bavarian physician travelling the Ottoman Empire in 1834–1835 – Joachim Gierlichs 10. Publishing with ‘Modern Taste and Spirit’ – Paulina Banas 11. ‘Mr and Mrs Smith of England’: a tour to Petra and east of Jordan in 1865 – David Kennedy 12. Anton Prokesch-Osten Jr (1837–1919) – Angela Blaschek 13. William Wing Loring, George Brinton McClellan and Ulysses S. Grant: American Civil War Generals in Egypt during the 1870s – Mladen Tomorad 14. Consular Agents and Foreign Travellers in Upper Egypt in the Nineteenth Century – Terence Walz 15. A Luxor Room with a View at Pagnon’s Hotels – Sylvie Weens 16. Richard A. Bermann, the Desert and the Mahdi: an Austrian writer’s fascination with Egypt and the Sudan – Ernst Czerny 17. Unlawful Acts and Supernatural Curses: the fictional traveller in Bram Stoker’s The Jewel of Seven Stars (1903) – Rebecca Bruce Notes on Contributors Index Pious Pilgrims, Discerning Travellers, Curious Tourists: Changing patterns of travel to the Middle East from medieval to modern times comprises a varied collection of seventeen papers presented at the biennial conference of the Association for the Study of Travel in Egypt and the Near East (ASTENE) held in York in July 2019, which together will provide the reader with a fascinating introduction to travel in and to the Middle East over more than a thousand years. As in previous ASTENE volumes, the material presented ranges widely, from Ancient Egyptian sites through medieval pilgrims to tourists and other travellers of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The papers embody a number of different traditions, including not only actual but also fictional travel experiences, as well as pilgrimage or missionary narratives reflecting quests for spiritual wisdom as well as geographical knowledge. They also reflect the shifting political and cultural relations between Europe and the Near and Middle East, and between the different religions of the area, as seen and described by travellers both from within and from outside the region over the centuries. The men and women travellers discussed travelled for a wide variety of reasons — religious, commercial, military, diplomatic, or sometimes even just for a holiday! — but whatever their primary motivations, they were almost always also inspired by a sense of curiosity about peoples and places less familiar than their own. By recording their experiences, whether in words or in art, they have greatly contributed to our understanding of what has shaped the world we live in. As Ibn Battuta, one of the greatest of medieval Arab travellers, wrote: ‘Travelling — it leaves you speechless, then turns you into a storyteller!’ Cover 1 ASTENE Publications 2 Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Contents Page 5 Introduction 7 Paul and Janet Starkey 7 1 15 Pilgrimage as travel 15 Jacke Phillips 15 Figure 1. Maps indicating areas with Christian and Muslim populations in relevant regions (Author) 17 Figure 2. Table of the Mecca Pilgrimage of 1880 (Blunt 1882: 10) 18 Figure 3. The maqāmāt story-teller al-Ḥārith joins a caravan of pilgrims, from the Maqāmāt al-Ḥarīrī (1236–1237). Bibliothèque nationale, Paris Ms. Arabe 5847 fol. 94v. Available at: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Yahyâ_ibn_Mahm 19 Figure 4. a. A caravan stop, from the Maqāmāt al-Ḥarīrī (1225–1235). Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Oriental Studies, St Petersburg Ms. C-23 fol. 12a. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maqamat_of_al-Hariri_-_St Petersbur 20 Figure 5. Merchants/pilgrims watching through portholes of a ship in the Persian Gulf with Abū Zayd on board, from the Maqāmāt al-Ḥarīrī (1225–1235). Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Oriental Studies, St Petersburg Ms. C-23. Available at: https:/ 21 Figure 6. Map indicating the extent of Sub-Saharan trade and pilgrimage land connections to and from Suakin from West Africa and the Horn of Africa. Note these land routes pass through the Christian regions marked in yellow (sixth–fifteenth century in Nub 25 Figure 8. Map indicating the extent of the principal land and sea connections to and from Suakin, serving both trade and pilgrimage. Note these land routes pass through the Christian regions marked in yellow (sixth–fifteenth century in Nubia, continuous i 26 Figure 7. Map indicating the Horn of Africa caravan routes leading to Suakin and ‘Aidhab, and major onward sea routes to the north, south and Jeddah. Author’s collation of numerous documented route maps over the last 1500 years. Note the Christian regions 27 FIGURE 8. Map indicating the extent of the principal land and sea connections to and from Suakin, serving both trade and pilgrimage. Note these land routes pass through the Christian regions marked in yellow (sixth–fifteenth century in Nubia, continuous i 29 Figure 9. a–b. The camps of a. North African (detail) and b. Iranian pilgrims, from the Anīs al-ḥujjāj by Safi ibn Vali (1677–1680). Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Mss. 1025 fols 15a & 17a. Available at: https://www.khalilicollections.org/al 36 2 48 Ibn Jubayr’s Riḥla reconsidered 48 Paul Starkey 48 Figure 1. A modern idealised portrayal of Ibn Jubayr. Painted by Guillermo Muñoz Vera, 1956 (https://muslimheritage.com/the-travels-of-ibn-jubair/) 50 Figure 2. The Itinerary of Ibn Jubayr 1183–1185 AD: Western Half (from The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, transl. Roland Broadhurst, facing p. 25) 51 Figure 3. The Itinerary of Ibn Jubayr 1183–1185 AD: Eastern Half (from The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, transl. Roland Broadhurst, facing p. 31) 52 Figure 4. The lighthouse of Alexandria. A drawing of the Pharos of Alexandria made in 1909 by the German archaeologist Professor Hermann Thiersch (1874–1939) (in the public domain) 58 Figure 5. Statue of Saladin in Damascus designed by Syrian sculptor Abdallah al-Sayed. Unveiled 1993 to mark the 800th anniversary of Saladin’s death. (Available under Creative Commons, 9 November 2010) 60 Figure 6. Saladin’s Conquests into the Levant (1174–1189). https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory/chapter/the-third-crusade/ From Boundless World History: https://www.boundless.com/world-history/textbooks/boundless-world-history-textbook 61 Figure 7. William II offering a model of the Monreale Cathedral to the Virgin Mary. Unknown artist. (In the public domain) 65 Figure 8. Spanish Convivencia. A Christian and Moor playing chess. The Book of Games (Libro de los juegos), fol. 63v. The book was commissioned by Alfonso X of Castile, Galicia and León and completed in 1283. Image available at: http://games.rengeekcentra 66 3 69 ‘Gardens of Paradise’ 69 Janet Starkey 69 Figure 1. Map of castles in the Alamūt and Rūdbār regions, in what is now modern Iran (Wikicommons, in the public domain) 72 Figure 2. The four rivers of the Garden of Paradise. In this cosmic oasis the garden is surrounded by a hexagonal wall and the world appears as a circle divided into four quarters. The basin in the centre is the source of life. From Voyages of Sir John Ma 74 Figure 3. a. Aloadin, the Old Man of the Mountain, grants two devotees who were recruited as Assassins a day in his paradise garden in Alamūt, b. Aloadin giving his devotees drugged wine at Alamūt. Tempera on vellum by Boucicaut Master, Paris. c.1410–1412 75 Figure 4. The siege of Alamūt of 1256. (1430), ©Bibliothèque nationale de France. Département des Manuscrits. (Division orientale/ BnF MS pers.) (Wikicommons, in the public domain) 77 Figure 5. a. Freya Stark, ‘Surroundings of the Alamut Valley’, detail of a map facing page 199 in Freya Stark, Valley of the Assassins (1934); b. ‘The Rock of Alamut from the South’ (Stark 1934: facing page 210); c. ‘Village of Garmrud in the Alamut Valle 79 Figure 6. a. Map of Nizārī castles in Syria (https://kyleorton1991.wordpress.com/2015/08/19/islams-first-terrorists-part-3/); b. Maṣyāf Castle, Syria, taken in 2013 by Nabih Farkouh. (Wikicommons, in the public domain) 82 Figure 7. Odoric at Alamūt, from Itinerarium de mirabilibus orientalium Tartarorum of Odoric de Pordenone in the Livre des merveilles du monde, c.1410–1412. (Detail). ©Bibliothèque nationale de France. BnF Fr 2810 fol. 114v. (In the public domain) 83 Figure 8. Odoric’s tomb in the Church of the Carmine, Udine (Wikicommons, in the public domain) 84 Figure 9. a. Melazkert [Malazgirt] from the north. Sipan in the background. Taken by the traveller Henry F.B. Lynch. 1901. (Lynch 1901, ii: opposite p. 269). b. Plan of the ancient fortifications of Melazkert (Lynch 1901, ii: opposite p. 271) 86 Figure 10. Portrait of Sir John Mandeville in Travels by John Mandeville. Created in 1459. ©New York Public Library. Spencer Collection Ms. 037. (In the public domain) 88 Figure 11. Paradise from the Itinerarium of Odoric de Pordenone, from the Livre des merveilles du monde, c.1410–1412. (Detail). ©Bibliothèque nationale de France. BnF Fr 2810 fol.106v. (In the public domain) 93 Figure 12. Arabo-Norman Ziza Castle, Palermo, built between 1164 and 1175 for William I and William II of Sicily. (Licensed under Creative Commons) 96 4 106 ‘Wady Ghrásheca’: 106 an unknown Christian site in Sir Gardner Wilkinson’s unpublished manuscripts from the Eastern Desert 106 Jan Ciglenečki & Blaž Zabel 106 Figure 1. Claude Sicard. Carte des déserts de la basse Thébaïde aux environs des monastères de St. Antoine et de St. Paul hermites, avec le plan des lieux par où les Israëlites ont probablement passé en sortant de l’Égypte (Cairo, 1717) 107 Figure 2. Inscriptions and rock drawings in ‘Wady Ghrásheca’. Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS. Wilkinson dep. c. 13, fol. 81. ©National Trust 112 Figure 3. Map of the Eastern Desert with ‘Wady Ghrásheca’ marked on the map (Wilkinson 1832) 114 Figure 5. Map β with marked location of ‘Wady Ghrásheca’ and a ‘tomb’. Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS. Wilkinson dep. c. 4, fol. 16. ©National Trust 116 Figure 4. Map α with marked location of ‘Wady Ghrásheca’. Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS. Wilkinson dep. c. 4, fol. 16. ©National Trust 116 Figure 6. Panoramic sketch with marked locations of ‘Wady Ghrásheca’ and a ‘tomb’. Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS. Wilkinson dep. c. 4, fol. 23. ©National Trust 117 Figure 7. Google Earth satellite image with the tentatively marked location of ‚Wady Ghrásheca’. 118 Figure 8. ‘Uadi Ghasala’ south of Gebel Tenassib with a marked location of “Felsklause” on Schweinfurth’s map ‘Die südliche Galāla mit dem nördlichen Theil der krystallinischen Küstengebirge’ (1899?). Also available online: http://digitool.is.cuni.cz/R/-? 120 5 123 Exploring the Ottoman Empire: 123 the travels of Peter Mundy (1597–c.1667) in Turkey 1617–1620 123 Jennifer Scarce 123 Figure 1. Top half of Peter Mundy’s pencil drawing entitled ‘Punishments Used in Turkie’ (Mundy 1907: pull-out opposite page 55) showing his drawing of the Sultan Ahmet I mosque, built 1609–1616 in Constantinople 125 Figure 2. Peter Mundy Album 1618, detail of his initials ‘P.M.’ (British Museum acc. no. 1974,0617,0.13, fols 1b–59b. ©British Museum) 126 Figure 3. Woman in brown dress, watercolour on paper, Turkey, early seventeenth century (British Museum acc. no. 1974,0617,0.13 fol. 47b. Image ©British Museum) 127 Figure 4. The Executioner, watercolour on paper, Turkey, early seventeenth century (British Museum acc. no. 1974,0617,0.13 fol. 33b. Image ©British Museum) 128 Figure 5. Peter Mundy travel journal Itinerarium Mundy manuscript, seventeenth century (Bodleian Library Oxford MS.Rawl.A.315) 128 Figure 6. A European merchant, watercolour on paper, India Mughal 1610–1615 (©V & A Images, Victoria and Albert Museum London) 129 Figure 7. Constantinople, Mosque of Sultan Ahmet I, built 1609–1616, the ‘Blue Mosque’: ‘l’élévation et le plan de la mosquée de Sultan Achmed’ (Grelot 1680: pull-out opposite p. 271) 130 Figure 8. a. Portrait of Sultan Ahmet I (r.1603–1617), watercolour on paper, Turkey, early seventeenth century (National Museum of Scotland acc. no.1888.88. fol. 11a. Image ©National Museum of Scotland). b. Portrait of Sultan Ahmet I (1603-1617), above a 131 Figure 9. Lengths of kemha silk brocade, Turkey, sixteenth to seventeenth century. a. Ogival pattern, probably from Istanbul, 1570–1580, with silk, metal-wrapped thread, now in the Aga Khan Museum, Toronto, Canada. b. Fragmentary loom width with wavy-vin 135 Figure 10. Woman in red dress, watercolour on paper, Turkey, early seventeenth century (British Museum acc. no, 1974,0617,0.13 fol. 46b. Image ©British Museum) 137 6 145 With a radius most accurately divided into 10,000 parts: John Greaves and his scientific survey of Egypt in 1638–1639 145 Ronald E. Zitterkopf 145 John Greaves and his scientific survey of Egypt in 1638–1639 145 Figure 1. General view of the pyramids and the sphinx, taken at sunset. From the Commission d’Égypte, France, Description de l’Égypte, Volume V, Plate 8. Courtesy of The Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering & Technology 147 Figure 2. The construction of transversals enables a unit of scale to be subdivided and read to a greater precision. (Digges 1573: Sig. I, fol. 3v). Courtesy of The Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering & Technology 148 Figure 3. An example of the notes taken by Greaves at the Great Pyramid. Here he has variously written in pencil, black ink, and brown ink. Note the reference to T. Livio Burattini (Bodley MS Savile 49(3), fol. 64r). Courtesy of The Bodleian Library, Univ 148 Figure 4. Man measuring the height of a building using a cross-staff. This same method could be employed for measuring horizontal widths (Fludd 1618: Second Treatise, 282). Courtesy of The Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering & Technology 149 Figure 5. Pyramidographia title page. Courtesy of The Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering & Technology 152 Figure 6. The inside of the first and fairest Pyramid. (Greaves 1648: after p. 102). Courtesy of The Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering & Technology 153 Figure 7. Greaves’s notebook page showing the calculation of a pyramid altitude of 490 feet and then computing that the missing top subtracts 9 feet, yielding a height of 481 feet. This is the altitude shown in the 1646 edition of Pyramidographia (Bodley 156 Figure 9. Comparison of Greaves’s measurements of the Great Pyramid to currently accepted values 157 Figure 8. Introduction of Greaves’s message to Dr Scarborough in response to the anonymous critic. The ensuing calculations are based on a truncated pyramid. (Bodley MS Savile 47, fol. 46r). Courtesy of The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford 157 Figure 10. Example of Greaves’s recording of Egyptian hieroglyphics. (Bodley MS Savile 49(4) fols 47v & 48r). Courtesy of The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford 161 7 166 Dimitrie Cantemir, 166 the ‘Orpheus of the Turkish Empire’ (1673–1723) 166 Cristina Erck 166 Figure 1. Cantemirʼs palace at Ortaköy 1734 (Cantemir 1734–1735). (In the public domain) 167 Figure 2. a. Moldovan stamp 2000 (adapted from the Portrait of Moldavian ruler Dimitrie Cantemir, from the first edition of his Latin work Descriptio Moldaviae). (In the public domain). b. Dimitrie Cantemir on a Soviet stamp 1973. Available at: //www.wik 169 Figure 3. Portrait of Dimitrie Cantemir, from the first edition of his Latin work Descriptio Moldaviae (1716). (In the public domain) 171 Figure 4. Title page of the The Divan or the Quarrel of the Wise Man with the World or the Judgment Between the Soul and the Body (1698). Romanian Academy Library, WDL7776.pdf. (Wikicommons, in the public domain) 172 Figure 5. Icon in the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate in the Fener neighbourhood of Istanbul, depicting Sultan Mehmed II and Patriarch Gennadios II Scholarios. Cantemir built his own house in the vicinity of the Patriarchate. Available at: https://nomadicniko 173 Figure 6. Title page of Cantemir. 1734–1735. The History of the Growth and Decay of the Othman Empire. London (Wikicommons, in the public domain) 175 Figure 7. Musavvir Hüseyin. Musicians. Miniature from Costumes turcs de la Cour et de la ville de Constantinople en 1720, c.1720, gouache on paper. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. BnF Estampes, Od. 6, Plate 3. (In the public domain) 175 Figure 8. Sufi dervishes. ©Cristina Erck 176 Figure 9. Cantemir’s notations and symbols for the tanbur, page 131 in Kitâb-ı ʿİlmüʾl mûsikî ʿalâ vechiʾl-ḥurûfât (c.1695–1700) 178 Figure 10. Makâm-i Hüseyni Sakil-i Aga Riza by D. Cantemir (Savall 2009a) 180 8 184 The artist William Page (1794–1872) 184 and his travels in Greece and western Turkey in the first half of the nineteenth century 184 Brian J. Taylor 184 Figure 1. A Kalyoncu or Sea Captain. Watercolour by William Page stuck down on red card. Signed on mount but not dated. Collection of the author. Photograph by Clare Taylor 188 Figure 2. The Fountain of Tophana, Constantinople. Etching and aquatint by R.G. Reeve (active c.1811–c.1837) after a drawing by William Page. (V&A SP443) 189 Figure 3. The harbour baths and theatre at Ephesus. Watercolour drawing (SD 742) on rough paper by William Page. Dated c.1828–1830, the Searight Collection, V&A. Said to represent Page’s ‘later, more picturesque style’ 190 Figure 4. Convent of the Capuchins, Athens. Drawn by William Page, c.1819 and redrawn by C. Stanfield. (Brockedon 1833a, i) 193 Figure 5. All that remains of the Convent of the Capuchins, the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates and the district of Fanari, Athens, after 1821. Illustrated, c.1833 by Eugene Peytier (1793–1863). Reproduced by permission of the Onassis Library Travel Accou 199 Figure 6. Dragoman ‘Sadik Beg/Saith Satoor’ painted by William Page. Signed and dated ‘1822’. Watercolour over pencil. Guy Peppiatt Fine Art Ltd, St James’s, London 202 Figure 7. A view of Büyükdere on the Bosphorus 203 Figure 8. A Mamluk from Aleppo. c.1810–1823. Watercolour over pencil by William Page (V&A 724) 206 9 221 Jacob Röser: 221 a Bavarian physician travelling the Ottoman Empire in 1834–1835 221 Joachim Gierlichs 221 Figure 1. a. The travelogue of J. Röser (1836). This copy is the property of Joachim Gierlichs, ex-K. Otto-Dorn, ex-H. Ritter (photograph taken by J. Gierlichs ©Das Bild des Orients). b. The name of [Hellmut] Ritter (1896–1972) on the front pages of this 223 Figure 2. Travelogue of J. Röser (1836), title page. (Photograph taken by J. Gierlichs, ©Das Bild des Orients) 224 Figure 3. Nauplia: historical bird’s eye view of c.1900. (Photograph taken by Alexander Zäh ©Das Bild des Orients). To be published as fig. 9, on page 41 in Wulf Schaefer †. 2021. Baugeschichte Von Nauplia: aus dem Nachlaß herausgegeben und kommentiert vo 225 Figure 4. Athens: view to the Acropolis, c.1928, photograph from an album of a Mediterranean Cruise (©Das Bild des Orients) 226 Figure 5. a. Izmir cemetery, 1980. (Photograph taken by E.H. von Prosch ©Das Bild des Orients). b. Izmir cemetery, historic view; a postcard (©archnet.org) 229 Figure 6. a. Manisa: Ulu Camii portal with ʻsnakesʼ (knotted columns), 2001. (Photograph by J. Gierlichs, ©Das Bild des Orients). b. Manisa: view towards the Sultan Camii, 1961. (Photograph by K. Otto-Dorn, ©Das Bild des Orients) 230 Figure 7. Bursa: Yeni Kaplıca Hamamı mentioned by Röser (1836), 1983. (Photograph by E.H. von Prosch ©Das Bild des Orients) 231 Figure 8. Istanbul: Hagia Sophia, 1980 (photograph by J. Gierlichs ©Das Bild des Orients) 232 Figure 9. Istanbul: historical view from the (old) Galata Bridge towards Süleimaniye Camii, c.1928 from a photograph album of a Mediterranean Cruise (©Das Bild des Orients) 233 Figure 10. a. Tarabya in Greater Istanbul: Residence of the German ambassador, c.1893 ©Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI — Abteilung Istanbul). b. Tarabya park with the former Residence of the German ambassador, 2018 (Photograph taken by J. Gierlic 239 10 243 Publishing with ‘Modern Taste and Spirit’: 243 competitiveness and commercialism in a mid-nineteenth-century British illustrated travel book on modern Egypt 243 Paulina Banas 243 Figure 1. É. Prisse d’Avennes. Janissary and Merchant. Coloured lithograph (St John & Prisse d’Avennes 1851: Plate 8). The New York Public Library Digital Collections, NYPL catalogue ID (B-number): b11704804. (In the public domain) 244 Figure 2. Domestic Utensils (detail). Wood engraving (St John & Prisse d’Avennes 1848: 15). Bibliothèque Numérique Gallica. BnF Résac. Gr. fol. O3b–424 245 Figure 3. Private Houses in Cairo. Wood engraving (Lane 1836, i: 6). Travelers in the Middle East Archive (TIMEA). Rice University (https://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/10035) 248 Figure 4. Female in out-door dress (detail). Wood engraving (St John & Prisse d’Avennes 1848: 19). Bibliothèque Numérique Gallica. BnF Résac. Gr. fol. O3b–424 249 Figure 5. Ladies riding (detail). Wood engraving (Lane 1836, i: 240). Travelers in the Middle East Archive (TIMEA). Rice University (https://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/10091) 249 Figure 6. Ladies attired for Riding or Walking. Wood engraving (Lane 1836, i: 50). Travelers in the Middle East Archive (TIMEA). Rice University (https://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/10060) 250 Figure 7. Ckoom’e koom and Mib’khar’ah. Wood engraving (Lane 1836, i: 257). Travelers in the Middle East Archive (TIMEA). Rice University (https://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/10092) 251 Figure 8. Koor’see and Seenee’yeh. Wood engraving (Lane 1836, i: 177). Travelers in the Middle East Archive (TIMEA). Rice University (https://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/10078) 251 Figure 9. Saʾgaʾt (1), Taʾr (2), and Darʾabookʾkeh (3). Wood engraving (Lane 1836, ii: 77). Travelers in the Middle East Archive (TIMEA). Rice University (https://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/10118) 251 Figure 10. Image by the author to demonstrate how wood engravings from Lane’s Modern Egyptians (1836, i: 257, 177; ii: 77, as shown as Figures 7–9 in this chapter) were inserted into the image of ‘Domestic Utensils’ in the Oriental Album (1848: 15), as sh 252 Figure 11. Dancing-Girls (Ghawaʾzee, or Ghaʾzeeʾyehs). Wood engraving (Lane 1836, ii: 95) Travelers in the Middle East Archive (TIMEA). Rice University (https://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/10120) 253 Figure 12. Almées dans un sérail. Wood engraving (Horeau 1841. Moeurs et Coutumes. Panorama d’Égypte). Bibliothèque Numérique Gallica BnF Résac. Gr. fol-O3b-425. 253 Figure 13. The Ghawázees, or dancing girls of Cairo. Tinted lithograph (Roberts 1842–1849, iii: n p.). The New York Public Library Digital Collections, NYPL catalogue ID (B-number): b13861614. (In the public domain) 255 Figure 14. Ghawazi, or Dancing Girls, Rosetta. Coloured lithograph (St John & Prisse d’Avennes 1848: Plate 2). Bibliothèque Numérique Gallica. BnF Résac. Gr. fol. O3b–424. 256 Figure 15. The Bastinado (St John & Prisse d’Avennes 1848: 45). The combination of letters ‘E’ and ‘P’ and ‘A’ visible on the bottom of the wood engraving indicates Émile Prisse d’Avennes’s initials 258 Figure 16. The Bastinado. Wood engraving, Harper’s New Monthly Magazine (28 September 1852, v: 462). NYPL catalog ID (B-number): b17696948. New York: Harper & Bros. (In the public domain) 258 Figure 17. Pavilion near Kashan. Wood engraving (St John & Prisse d’Avennes 1848: 55) Bibliothèque Numérique Gallica. BnF Résac. Gr. fol. O3b–424 259 Figure 18. Pavilion of Finn. near Kashan (Persia). Wood engraving (De Bode 1845, i: 30) 259 11 267 ‘Mr and Mrs Smith of England’: 267 a tour to Petra and east of Jordan in 1865 267 David Kennedy 267 Figure 1. ‘Venus Disrobing for the Bath’, painted by Frederic Leighton, 1st Baron Leighton (1830–1896), oil on canvas. (Wikimedia Commons, in the public domain). Possibly modelled on Martha Smith 269 Figure 2. Map illustrating the places visited by the Smiths in 1865 (Drawn by Rebecca Repper) 271 Figure 3. Table of principal events in the lives of Eustace and ‘Eustacia’ Smith, 1855–1868 272 Figure 4. Martha Mary (‘Eustacia’) Smith, née Dalrymple, in an albumen print, c.1862–1866 by Camille Silvy (©National Portrait Gallery, London (NPG Ax59262)) 274 12 287 Anton Prokesch-Osten Jr (1837–1919) 287 Angela Blaschek 287  288 Figure 1. The military career of Anton Prokesch-Osten Jr 288 Figure 2. Anton Prokesch-Osten Jr and his wife Friederike, a photograph taken by Johann B. Lackenbacher, 1865. S36/F01558, ©Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main 289 Figure 3. Postcard entitled ‘AK-Gmunden-Blick-vom-Stadtpark-auf-Schloss-Ort-und-Villa-Prokesch-Osten-in-Grillenheim.’ c.1914 290 Figure 4. Prokesch-Osten Jr as editor of letters written by his father and by Friedrich von Gentz 292 Figure 5. A comparison of the structures and the travel routes of Prokesch-Osten Jr 1874 and Busch 1858 295 13 299 William Wing Loring, George Brinton McClellan and Ulysses S. Grant: American Civil War generals in Egypt during the 1870s 299 Mladen Tomorad 299 American Civil War Generals in Egypt during the 1870s 300 Figure 1. Egypt, 1820–1898. General Research Division, The New York Public Library. The New York Public Library Digital Collections. 1910. Available at: http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e3-bbbb-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 (In the public domain) 302 Figure 2. William W. Loring as a pasha in Egyptian service (Loring 1884: f07) 305 Figure 3. Major-General George Brinton McClellan of General Staff U.S. Volunteers, Infantry Regiment. Standing beside his wife, Mary Ellen McClellan, in front of painted backdrop (Library of Congress, LOT 14043-2, no. 537 [P&P]. No known restrictions on 311 Figure 4. a. ‘The Alice’ (McClellan 1876a: 368). b. ‘Group of Nile sailors’ (McClellan 1876a: 371) 314 Figure 5. Photograph of the eighteenth President of the United States, Ulysses S. Grant, taken between 1870 and 1880. (Wikipedia, in the public domain) 316 Figure 6. Ulysses S. Grant’s journey around the Middle East extracted from the world tour map found in Young 1879: frontispiece 319 Figure 7. Gifts from the Sultan of Turkey to Ulysses S. Grant, two Arabian stallions (Grant 1879: facing p. 347) 320 Figure 8. Ulysses S. Grant letter 25 January 1878: ‘We have just left Ancient Thebes, where we have spent two days in viewing ruins that have been standing — as ruins — some of them, for many ages before the beginning of the Christian era. We must stay on 321 Figure 9. Photograph of Ulysses S. Grant in a pith helmet, swathed in silk at the centre, with his wife Julia and his two sons Frederick and Jesse and entourage at Karnak temple about late January 1878. Courtesy of the Library of Congress Prints & Photogr 323 14 329 Consular agents and foreign travellers in Upper Egypt 329 in the nineteenth century 329 Terence Walz 329 Figure 1. a. View of the caves above Asyūṭ. ©Victoria and Albert Museum (SD.912–13) b. Panorama of Asyūṭ by Georg de Sausmarez in 1855. ©Victoria & Albert Museum (SD.912–12). (Published courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London) 331 Figure 3. Post & Telegraph offices in Baliyana [al-Balyanā], near Sohag, by Montard for the London Illustrated News, 1 July 1882: 13 332 Figure 2. ‘Siout: The Capital of upper Egypt’, albumen print taken by Francis Frith in 1857 or 1859, ex-Queen’s Collection and others. ©Royal Collection Trust: permission requested (RCIN 2701273) 332 Figure 4. Arrival of the overland mail in Alexandria. 26 February 1853. London Illustrated News 1853: 1. (Permission granted for academic purposes) 333 Figure 5. ‘Opiumstall’, Asyūṭ, by William James Müller, 1839, image from the British Museum. Now in the University of London, Royal Holloway Collection. (Permission requested) 334 Figure 7. Vase, donated 1885 by Thomas Muir to the Victoria & Albert Museum. (No. 116-1885). (Permission requested) 334 Figure 6. ‘Bazaar, Syout’, 1859. Fairholt 1862: 175 334 Figure 8. One of Wilkinson’s pipe bowls made in Asyūṭ. (Higgins 2015: VII, 20). The collection is now in Calke Abbey, Derbyshire 334 Figure 9. ‘Osioot -- Mocha coffee’. (Hoppin 1874: Seq. 8)3 335 Figure 10. The Secretary Bird. (Illustration facing p. 2 in J. Leyland. 1866) 336 Figure 11. General and Mrs Grant entering Asyūṭ in 1878. (Farman 1904: 90) 338 Figure 12. The Guest Book kept by Wāṣif Khayyāṭ, showing signatures of General and Mrs Grant, and also Ralph Waldo Emerson. (Wissa 1994: 112) 338 Figure 13. Letter from Maximos Sakakini to the mudīr of Asyūṭ regarding the Shaykh al-Balad of Dayrūṭ al-Sharīf, 1865. (MAE. al-Jawhari Papers) 340 Figure 14. Wāṣif Khayyāṭ and his son Bistawrus, American consular agents 1856–1900, (Wissa 1994: 114) 342 Figure 15. Wīṣā Buqṭur Wīṣā, Spanish consular agent. (Wissa 1994: facing p. 51). He was one of the founders of the Wīṣā family. In his earlier days, a fervent Protestant, he was reprimanded by government officials for his rude remarks to the governor of A 343 Figure 16. Alfred Darjou (drawing). Haute-Egypte: Danse des almées sur le rivage de Syout [Upper Egypt: Oriental dancers on the river bank of Assiout]. 1869, print, wood. Alkis Raftis Collection, Athens. Note the mashʿals mentioned by Pichot (1870: 24–26) 345 Figure 17 a. Alfred Darjou. Guenieh [Qinā] : Fête donnée aux touristes, par M. Bichara, vice-consul français. La danse du sabre. Le Monde Illustré 12–13 (Paris 1869): 345 (in the public domain). b. Alfred Darjou. La danse du sabre. Darjou & Pharaon 1872 : 346 Figure 18. Jean-Léon Gérôme’s rendition of the Sword Dance. Gérôme, too, formed part of the Khediveal group that toured Upper Egypt before the opening of the Suez Canal. (From Wikimedia Commons, in the public domain) 347 15 351 A Luxor Room with a View at Pagnon’s Hotels 351 Sylvie Weens 351 Figure 1. Albert Ferdinand Pagnon (Archives communales de Romans-sur-Isère) 353 Figure 2. Advertisement for the ‘Hotel Pagnon’ run by the Pagnons in Port Said (Archives communales de Romans-sur-Isère, 176S9) 354 Figure 3. Thomas Cook’s office in Cairo around 1880. Pagnon is standing on the steps. (Archives communales de Romans-sur-Isère, 176S9) 355 Figure 4. Entrance to the Luxor Hotel in the 1880s (Archives communales de Romans-sur-Isère, 176S9) 356 Figure 5. The dining-room at the Luxor Hotel (Archives communales de Romans-sur-Isère, 176S9) 357 Figure 6. Entrance to the Luxor Hotel on the corniche in Luxor (Private collection Sylvie Weens) 358 Figure 7. The Karnak Hotel (Archives communales de Romans-sur-Isère, 176S9) 359 Figure 8. The Cataract Hotel, Aswan (Archives communales de Romans-sur-Isère, 176S9) 364 Figure 9. The Pagnons laying the first stone of the Winter Palace Hotel (Archives communales de Romans-sur-Isère, 176S9) 365 Figure 10. The Winter Palace Hotel (Archives communales de Romans-sur-Isère, 176S9) 366 16 368 Richard A. Bermann, the Desert and the Mahdi: 368 an Austrian writer’s fascination with Egypt and the Sudan 368 Ernst Czerny 368 Figure 1. Richard A. Bermann, passport photograph, probably from the 1930s. Deutsche Nationalbibliothek. Deutsches Exilarchiv 1933-1945, Frankfurt am Main 369 Fig