Phytochemistry and Nutritional Composition of Significant Wild Medicinal and Edible Mushrooms : Traditional Uses and Pharmacology

Fungal natural products are among some of the earliest described sources of bioactive compounds. Basidiomycetes have been a prolific source of compounds, particularly as a source of antibiotics and antifungals. Despite advances in target-based and synthetic methods for drug discovery, natural products continue to be an important source of novel compounds. This book is a comprehensive guide to many important fungal species with a focus on their phytochemistry, potential sources of bioactive compounds, known chemistry and toxicology. This book is an ideal companion to researchers and postgraduates in phytochemistry and natural product pharmacology, and mycologists. Cover Half Title Phytochemistry and Nutritional Composition of Significant Wild Medicinal and Edible Mushrooms: Traditional Uses and Pharmacology Copyright Dedication Preface Editor Biographies Contents 1. An Overview on Mushrooms 1.1 Introduction 1.2 General Aspects of Mushroom Fungi 1.2.1 Mushroom Morphology 1.2.2 Mushrooms: Biology 1.2.3 Taxonomy and Classification of Mushrooms/ Basic Mycological Concepts 1.2.4 Categorization of Mushrooms 1.3 Sexuality in Mushrooms 1.3.1 Plasmogamy 1.3.2 Fruit Body Formation 1.3.3 Karyogamy and Meiosis 1.4 Mushroom Diversity and Their Benefits 1.5 Cultivation of Mushrooms 1.6 Common Edible Mushroom of the Himalayas 1.6.1 Agaricus 1.6.2 Armillaria 1.6.3 Flammulina 1.6.4 Fomes 1.6.5 Ganoderma 1.6.6 Lentinula 1.6.7 Macrolepiota 1.6.8 Stropharia 1.6.9 Volvariella 1.6.10 Aminata 1.6.11 Astraeus 1.6.12 Cantharellus 1.6.13 Craterellus 1.6.14 Leucopaxillus 1.6.15 Russula 1.6.16 Termitomycetes 1.6.17 Morchella 1.6.18 Cordyceps 1.7 Himalayan Sustainability 1.7.1 Deforestation 1.7.2 Overexploitation 1.7.3 Urbanization 1.7.4 Lack of Awareness with Diminishing Ethnomedicine Knowledge 1.7.5 Cultivation Technology: Geo Tagging and Restricted Usage 1.8 Conclusions References 2. Genus Agaricus Species Found in the Himalayas: Agaricus campestris L. and Agaricus augustus Fr. 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Taxonomy, Botanical Names, Local Names, and Characteristics of Mushrooms 2.2.1 Representative Species 2.3 Resource Availability of Wild or Cultivated Mushrooms: Sustainability and Distribution 2.3.1 Distribution of Mushrooms 2.4 Medicinal Uses 2.4.1 Antioxidant Properties 2.4.2 Anticancer Properties 2.4.3 Anti-diabetic Activity 2.4.4 Anti-obesity Activity 2.4.5 Antimicrobial Activity 2.4.6 Anti-inflammatory Properties 2.5 Phytochemistry 2.6 Nutritional Value 2.6.1 Amino Acid and Protein Content 2.6.2 Lipids 2.6.3 Carbohydrate and Fiber 2.6.4 Minerals 2.6.5 Vitamins 2.6.6 Cosmetic Value 2.7 Safety, Toxicity and Regulation 2.8 Trade, Storage Stability and Transport 2.9 Conclusions Abbreviations References 3. Armillaria mellea: Honey Fungus 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Taxonomy 3.3 Resource Availability (Habitat, Characteristics and Species) of Honey Fungus 3.4 Medicinal Uses 3.4.1 Phytochemistry of Honey Fungus 3.5 Safety, Toxicity, and Regulation 3.5.1 Pathogen 3.6 Cultivation and Harvesting 3.6.1 Pharmacological Potential 3.6.2 Nutritional Aspects 3.7 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 4. Amanita Species 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Taxonomy and Classification 4.3 Resource Availability 4.3.1 Sustainability 4.3.2 Distribution 4.4 Medicinal Value 4.4.1 Good for the Heart 4.4.2 Low Calorie Food 4.4.3 Prevents Cancer 4.4.4 Anti-aging Properties 4.4.5 Regulates the Digestive System 4.4.6 Strengthens Immunity 4.5 Phytochemistry 4.6 Secondary Bio-active Compounds 4.6.1 Isoxazole Compounds 4.6.2 Muscarine 4.6.3 Ibotenic Acid 4.6.4 Muscimol 4.7 Pharmacological Potential 4.8 Nutrition and Dietary Composition 4.9 Mushroom Cultivation and Harvesting 4.10 Conservation of Mushrooms 4.11 Safety 4.11.1 Toxicity 4.11.2 Regulation 4.12 The Mushroom Trade 4.12.1 Storage of Mushrooms 4.12.2 Transport of Mushrooms 4.13 Conclusions References 5. Astraeus hygrometricus (Pers.) Morgan 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Botany, Taxonomy, and Geographical Distribution 5.2.1 Taxonomy 5.2.2 Physical Characteristics 5.2.3 Geographical Distribution 5.2.4 Resource Availability and Sustainability 5.3 Traditional Uses 5.3.1 Folklore and Ancient Uses 5.3.2 Modern Uses 5.4 Phytochemistry 5.4.1 Nutritional and Dietary Composition 5.4.2 Vitamins 5.4.3 Phytochemicals 5.4.4 Volatile Organic Compounds 5.5 Pharmacological Potential 5.5.1 Immunomodulatory Properties 5.5.2 Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activities 5.5.3 Antitumor Properties 5.5.4 Hepatoprotective Properties 5.5.5 Anti-diabetic Properties 5.5.6 Cardioprotective Properties 5.6 Safety, Toxicity and Regulation 5.7 Conclusions References 6. Cantharellus cibarius Fr./Cantharellus subalbidius/Cantharellus lateritius Singer (Chanterelle) 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Taxonomy 6.3 Geographic Distribution 6.4 Cultivation 6.5 Chemical Profiling of Cantharellus Species ( i. e., C. cibarius, C. subalbidus and C. lateritius) 6.5.1 Vitamins and Minerals 6.5.2 Primary Metabolites 6.5.3 Secondary Metabolites 6.5.4 Miscellaneous 6.6 Pharmacological and Immunological Potential of Cantharellus Species 6.6.1 Antioxidant Activity 6.6.2 Immunological Activity 6.6.3 Anticancer Activity 6.6.4 Consumption and Processing in the Food Industry 6.7 Conservation 6.8 Safety and Toxicity 6.9 Conclusions and Perspectives Acknowledgements References 7. Craterellus cornucopioides (L.)/Craterellus odoratus (Schwein.) Fr. (Black Chanterelle) 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Taxonomy of Craterellus cornucopioides 7.2.1 Common Name 7.2.2 Synonyms 7.2.3 Characteristics of Mushrooms 7.3 Resource Availability, Sustainability and Distribution of Craterellus cornucopioides 7.4 Medicinal Uses of Craterellus cornucopioides 7.5 Phytochemistry of Craterellus cornucopioides 7.5.1 Important Bioactive Compounds of Craterellus cornucopioides 7.5.2 Nutritional and Dietary Composition 7.6 Cultivation and Harvesting 7.7 Processing in the Food Industry 7.8 Conservation 7.8.1 Conservation in Habitat 7.8.2 Awareness of Generations 7.8.3 Cryopreservation 7.8.4 Freeze-drying or Lyophilization 7.8.5 Tissue Culture 7.9 Safety, Toxicity and Regulation 7.10 Trade, Storage Stability and Transport 7.11 Conclusions and Future Perspectives Acknowledgements References 8. Enokitake (Flammulina velutipes) 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Taxonomy and Characteristics of Mushrooms 8.3 Resources Availability, Sustainability and Distribution 8.4 Medicinal Uses (Folklore and Ancient and Modern Uses) 8.5 Phytochemistry 8.5.1 Secondary Metabolites 8.5.2 Nutritional and Dietary Composition 8.6 Pharmacological Potential 8.6.1 Antitumor and Anticancer Properties 8.6.2 Antihypercholesterolemic and Antihyperglycemic Properties 8.6.3 Immunomodulatory Properties 8.6.4 Antioxidants 8.6.5 Antimicrobial and Antiparasitic Properties 8.6.6 Anti-inflammatory Properties 8.6.7 Anti-neurological Disorder Properties 8.6.8 Anti-melanosis Properties 8.6.9 Anti-obesity Properties 8.7 Cultivation and Postharvest 8.7.1 Cultivation 8.7.2 Postharvest 8.8 Safety, Toxicity, and Regulation 8.9 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 9. Fomes fomentarius (L.) Fr. 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Taxonomy 9.2.1 Taxonomic Tree 9.3 Occurrence on Wood Substrate 9.3.1 Dimensions 9.3.2 Upper Surface 9.3.3 Pore Surface 9.3.4 Edibility 9.4 Taxonomic History 9.5 Description 9.6 Characteristics 9.7 Resource Availability, Sustainability, and Distribution 9.8 Medicinal Properties 9.9 Phytochemistry 9.10 Pharmacological Potential 9.11 Cultivation and Harvesting 9.12 Safety, Toxicity, and Regulation 9.13 Trade, Storage and Transport 9.14 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 10. Ganoderma lucidum (Lingzhi Mushroom): Its Medicinal Uses, Biomolecules and Therapeutic Applications 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Ecological Distribution 10.3 Ethnomycological Uses 10.4 Cultivation 10.5 Production and Marketing 10.6 Nutritional Value 10.7 Toxicity and Health Hazards 10.8 Phytochemical Composition and Pharmacological Activity 10.8.1 Triterpenes 10.8.2 G. lucidum Polysaccharides, GLPS (Ganopolys) 10.8.3 Proteins and Peptides 10.8.4 Enzymes, Nucleosides/ Tides, and Amino Acids 10.8.5 Vitamins and Essential Minerals 10.8.6 Alkaloids, Fiber, and Steroids 10.9 Clinical Trials and Therapeutic Applications 10.10 Biodiscovery Potential and Conservation Aspects 10.11 Conclusions and Future Prospects Acknowledgements References 11. Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegler 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Taxonomic Classification 11.1.2 Distribution 11.2 Traditional Uses 11.3 Nutritional and Chemical Composition of the Shiitake Mushroom 11.4 Cultivated Shiitake ( Lentinula edodes) Yield 11.5 In vitro Anti-atherosclerotic Activity 11.6 Lipid Peroxidation Inhibitory Effect of the Shiitake Mushroom 11.7 Immunomodulatory Properties of the Shiitake Mushroom 11.8 Antiviral Effects of the Shiitake Mushroom 11.9 Shiitake Mushroom Use in Synthesizing Vegetable-based Edible Films 11.10 Toxicity/Side Effects of the Shiitake Mushroom 11.11 Conclusions References 12. Leucopaxillus giganteus (Sowerby) Singer (Giant Leucopax) 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Taxonomy 12.2.1 Taxonomic History 12.2.2 Taxonomic Classification 12.2.3 Vernacular Names 12.3 Distribution and Relationship 12.4 Morphology Characteristics 12.5 Traditional Uses 12.6 Cultivation 12.7 Detailed Extraction of Major Phytochemicals 12.8 Quantitative Data Representation of Phytochemicals 12.9 Phytochemistry 12.10 Pharmacological Activities 12.10.1 Antioxidant Activity 12.10.2 Antimicrobial Activity 12.10.3 Antitumor Activity 12.11 Extinction and Conservation 12.12 Conclusions and Future Perspectives Acknowledgements References 13. Macrolepiota procera 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Taxonomy 13.3 Distribution 13.4 Traditional Uses 13.5 Phytochemistry of M. procera 13.6 Proximate Composition of M. procera 13.7 Mineral Composition 13.8 Pharmacological Activities 13.8.1 Anticancer Activity 13.8.2 Immunomodulatory Activity 13.8.3 Anti- inflammatory Activity 13.8.4 Antioxidant Activity 13.8.5 Antimicrobial Activity 13.8.6 Other Therapeutic Benefits 13.9 Toxicological Risks 13.10 Need for Cultivation 13.10.1 Methods of Cultivation 13.10.2 Critical Conditions for the Cultivation of M. procera 13.11 Preservation and Processing of M. procera 13.11.1 Preservation Technologies for M. procera 13.12 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 14. Russula virescens (Schaeff.) Fr./Russula adusta Krombh./Russula delica Fr./Russula nigricans (Bull.) Fr./Russula cyanoxantha 14.1 Introduction 14.2 R. virescens (Schaeff.) Fr. 14.2.1 Distribution 14.2.2 Morphology 14.2.3 Bioactive Phytochemical Constituents 14.2.4 Phytochemistry 14.2.5 Pharmacology 14.2.6 Nutritional Value of R. virescens 14.3 Russula delica Fr. 14.3.1 Distribution 14.3.2 Morphology 14.3.3 Bioactive Constituents 14.3.4 Fatty Acids 14.3.5 Sterols 14.3.6 Total Polyphenols and Terpenic Acid 14.3.7 Proximate and Nutritional Composition of R. delica 14.3.8 Pharmacology 14.4 Russula cyanoxantha (Charcoal Burner Mushroom) 14.4.1 Distribution 14.4.2 Morphology 14.4.3 Bioactive Compounds 14.4.4 Pharmacology 14.5 Conclusion Acknowledgements References 15. Stropharia rugosoannulata Farlow ex Murrill (Wine Cap Stropharia or Garden Giant) 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Taxonomy 15.2.1 Stropharia 15.2.2 Stropharia Taxonomy 15.2.3 Stropharia rugosoannulata 15.3 Scientific Classification 15.3.1 Resource Availability 15.4 Medicinal Uses 15.5 Phytochemistry 15.5.1 Important Bioactive Secondary Metabolites 15.5.2 Nutrition and Dietary Composition 15.6 Pharmacological Activities 15.6.1 Antibacterial Activity 15.6.2 Antioxidant Activity 15.7 Cultivation Methods of S. rugosoannulata 15.7.1 Culture 15.7.2 Production of Spawn 15.7.3 Compost Preparation 15.7.4 Cultivation Process 15.8 Safety, Toxicity, and Regulation 15.9 Conclusions and Future Prospectives Acknowledgements References 16. Termitomyces clypeatus and Termitomyces heimii 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Classification and Taxonomy 16.2.1 Taxonomy of Termitomyces 16.3 Resource Availability 16.4 Medicinal and Edible Properties 16.5 Termitomyces: Significance and Implications 16.6 Nutritional and Dietary Composition 16.7 Bioactive Phytochemical Constituents 16.8 Bioactivity Analysis References 17. Volvariella bombycina (Schaeff.) Singer (Silky Rosegill) 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Volvariella 17.3 Volvariella bombycina var. bombycina 17.4 Biological Structure of V. bombycina 17.5 Life Cycle 17.6 Importance 17.7 Phytochemistry of Volvariella bombycina 17.7.1 Hexadecanoic Acid 17.7.2 Pyrrolo[1,2- a]Pyrazine-1,4- dione,hexahydro-3-(2-methylpropyl) 17.7.3 Ergosta-4,6,8(14),22- tetraene- 3-one 17.7.4 Heteroglycan 17.7.5 Ergosterol Peroxide 17.8 Cultivation Technology of Volvariella bombycina 17.9 Threat 17.10 Conclusions References 18. Lesser-known Wild Medicinal and Edible Mushrooms 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Pholiota spp. 18.2.1 Taxonomy 18.2.2 Resource Availability, Sustainability and Distribution 18.2.3 Identification 18.2.4 Pharmacological Potential, BioactiveSecondary Metabolites and Medicinal Uses 18.3 Pholiota aurivella (Batch) P. Kumm – Golden Scalycap 18.3.1 Distribution 18.3.2 Occurrence 18.3.3 Edibility 18.3.4 Morphology 18.3.5 Taxonomy 18.3.6 Cultivation 18.3.7 Chemical Composition 18.3.8 Pharmacological/Medicinal Properties 18.4 Pholiota squarrosa (Vahl) P. Kumm (Scaly Pholiota) 18.4.1 Synonym: Agaricus squarrosus Vahl 18.4.2 Edibility 18.4.3 Ecology and Habitat 18.4.4 Distribution 18.4.5 Taxonomy 18.4.6 Description 18.5 Polyporus spp. 18.5.1 Taxonomy 18.5.2 Resource Availability (Wild or Cultivated): Sustainability and Distribution 18.5.3 Identification 18.5.4 Nutritional and Dietary Composition 18.5.5 Pharmacological Potential, BioactiveSecondary Metabolites and Medicinal Uses 18.5.6 Processing in the Food Industry 18.6 Rhizopogon luteolus Fr. 18.6.1 Taxonomy 18.6.2 Resource Availability (Wild or Cultivated): Sustainability and Distribution 18.6.3 Medicinal Uses 18.6.4 Phytochemistry 18.6.5 Pharmacological Potential (BiologicalActivities Related to Medicinal Uses or Clinical Evidence) 18.6.6 Cultivation and Harvesting 18.6.7 Safety, Toxicity and Regulation 18.7 Tricholoma terreum 18.7.1 Taxonomy and Distribution 18.7.2 Nutritional and Dietary Composition 18.7.3 Cultivation and Harvesting 18.7.4 Processing in the Food Industry 18.7.5 Important Bioactive Secondary Metabolites/Natural Products 18.8 Xerula radicata (Relhan) Do ̈rfelt 18.8.1 Taxonomy 18.8.2 History 18.8.3 Distribution 18.8.4 Morphology 18.8.5 Nutritional Content 18.8.6 Biological Activity 18.9 Verpa bohemica (Krombh) J. Schrot 18.9.1 Taxonomy 18.9.2 History 18.9.3 Distribution 18.9.4 Morphology 18.9.5 Toxicity 18.9.6 Biological Activity 18.10 Conclusions References Subject Index