Philosophies of Appropriated Religions : Perspectives From Southeast Asia

This book brings together different intercultural philosophical points of view discussing the philosophical impact of what we call the ‘appropriated’ religions of Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is home to most of the world religions. Buddhism is predominantly practiced in Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, Singapore, Laos, and Cambodia; Islam in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei; and Christianity in the Philippines and Timor-Leste. Historical data show, however, that these world religions are imported cultural products, and have been reimagined, assimilated, and appropriated by the culture that embraced them. In this collection, we see that these ‘appropriated’ religions imply a culturally nuanced worldview, which, in turn, impacts how the traditional problems in the philosophy of religion are framed and answered―in particular, questions about the existence and nature of the divine, the problem of evil, and the nature of life after death. Themes explored include: religious belief and digital transition, Theravāda Buddhist philosophy, religious diversity, Buddhism and omniscience, indigenous belief systems, divine apology and unmerited human suffering, dialetheism and the problem of evil, Buddhist philosophy and Spinoza’s views on death and immortality, belief and everyday realities in the Philippines, comparative religious philosophy, gendering the Hindu concept of dharma, Christian devotion and salvation during the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines through the writings of Jose Rizal, indigenous Islamic practices in the Philippines, practiced traditions in contemporary Filipino celebrations of Christmas, role of place-aspects in the appropriation of religions in Southeast Asia, and fate and divine omniscience. This book is of interest to scholars and researchers of philosophy of religion, sociology of religion, anthropology of religion, cultural studies, comparative religion, religious studies, and Asian studies. Foreword Preface Contents Editors and Contributors 1 Global Philosophy of Religion and the Perspectives from Southeast Asia 1 Introduction 2 The Challenge of Global Philosophy of Religion 3 The Appropriated Religions in Southeast Asia 4 Overview of the Chapters 5 Concluding Remarks References Part I Traditional Problems of the Philosophy of Religion 2 Spinoza and Buddhism on Death and Immortality 1 Introduction 2 Spinoza on Death and Immortality 3 Buddhism on Death and Immortality 4 Conclusion: Comparisons and Contrasts References 3 See You in 100+ Years or So: Immortality and the Afterlife in K-Dramas 1 Introduction 2 Religion and Pop Culture 3 K-Dramas on Immortality and the Afterlife 4 Religious Concepts of Immortality and the Afterlife 5 Discussion 6 Conclusion References 4 The Theist’s Legal Paradox: The Problem of Evil, Classical Natural Law Jurisprudence, and the Legal Validity of Immoral Law 1 Introduction 2 Classical Natural Law Jurisprudence 3 Contemporary Interpretations of Classical Natural Law Jurisprudence 3.1 The Radbruch Formula 3.2 Finnis’ Central Case Solution 4 Conclusion References 5 Morteza Motahhari on the Problem of Evil 1 Introduction 2 The Problem of Evil in Islamic Philosophy 3 Motahhari's Approach to the Problem of Evil 4 Motahhari’s Solution to the Problem of Evil 4.1 Evil Is Nonexistent 4.2 Evil Is Relative 4.3 The World Through the Holistic View 4.4 The Benefits of Evil 5 Conclusion References 6 Dialetheism and the Problem of Evil 1 Introduction 2 The No Best World Defense 3 Dialetheism and Paradoxes 4 Both Best and Not Best? 5 Dialetheism and No Best World 6 Conclusion References 7 Bahala Na: Fatalism or an Open Future? 1 Two Conceptions of Bahala Na 2 A Puzzle About Omniscience and Human Free Will 3 Bahala Na and the Puzzle of Omniscience 4 Conclusion References 8 Taking a Point of View on a Debatable Question Concerning Karma and Rebirth 1 Stipulative Definitions 2 Introduction 3 Three Philosophical Views: Traditionalist, Modernist, and Mediating View 3.1 Argument A—Traditionalist Argument 3.2 Argument B—Modernist Argument 3.3 Argument C—Mediating the Traditionalist and the Modernist Views 4 Summary and Conclusion 5 Epilogue Appendix References Part II Religious Identity 9 Epistemic Violence and the Religious Beliefs of Sixteenth-Century Tagalogs 1 Introduction 2 Sixteenth-Century Tagalog Religious Beliefs and Historical Reconstruction 3 Cracks in the Parchment Curtain 4 Overview of the Pre-Colonial Tagalog Religion 4.1 Islam in the Tagalog Region 4.2 Anito 4.3 Finalist Strategy of Interpretation 5 Conclusion References 10 A Linguistic Approach to the Tagalog Bathala and the Javanese Gusti 1 Introduction 2 What is Religion? 3 An Unfinished Story Model of the Epistemological Nature of Philosophy and Religion 4 Immanent and Transcendent Religions 5 Some Possible Criteria of Signs of the Intuition of the One God 6 The Tagalog Bathala as a Monotheistic God 7 The Indonesian/Hindu Term Batara is Lord 8 The Javanese Gusti Compared with the Tagalog Bathala 9 Conclusion: Immanent Religions Reinforced References 11 The Phenomenology of Inayan 1 Introduction 1.1 Hermeneutical Phenomenology 2 Inayan and the Kankanaey Worldview 3 Egyat, Paniyew, and Inayan 4 Inayan in the Natural Environment 5 Inayan in Basic Needs 6 Conclusion References 12 Catholicism in the Philippines Between Sákop and Kagandáhang-loób: A Critical Phenomenology of Religion 1 Introduction 2 Sákop 2.1 From Reducción to Reduction 3 Kagándahang-Loób 3.1 From Hospitality to Magnanimity 4 At the Crossing: The Filipino Christian Experience on the Streets References 13 Nakem and Echoes of the Sacred: An Onto-Religious Musing 1 Introduction 1.1 Religiosity and the Contemporary Ilokanos 1.2 The Aims of This Work 1.3 The Approach 2 Nakem as Cultural Philosophy 3 The Ilokano Nakem as a Hermeneutical Key 4 Nakem as an Ontology of the Self (Kinatao) 5 Ilokano Ontology and the Ethics of Naimbag a Nakem 6 Naimbag a Nakem as an Appropriation of the Christian Message of Salvation 7 Some Ilokano Proverbs About Good Character and Well-Being 8 Naimbag a Nakem and the Judaeo-Christian Concept of Salvation 9 Ilokano Ethno-Religious Practices as Integral to the Pursuit of Well-Being 10 Concluding Reflections References 14 On the Multispecies Spectrum of Spiritual Ethos in Pre-colonial and Colonial Philippines 1 Preamble: Willing the Islands 2 Colonialism and Multispecies Ecologies 3 Animistic Resistance in a Multinatured Environment 4 The Biopolitical Erasure of Multispecies History 5 Colonial Binarism 6 Conclusion References 15 Hesus Kanakangbungat Nipakapara: Aetas’ Soteriological Experience from Pinatubo Eruption to Present 1 Introduction 2 The Indigenous Aetas and Their Experiences 2.1 The Experience of Suffering (Kasakitan/ Hirap) 2.2 The Experience of Ginhawa 2.3 The Experience of Nipakapara 2.4 Jesus as the Source of Nipakapara 3 Conceptual Framework and Method of Analysis 3.1 Methodology 4 Results and Discussion 4.1 Aetas’ Experiences of Hirap 4.2 Aetas’ Experiences of Ginahawa 4.3 Aetas’ Soteriological Experience 5 Conclusion References Part III Religious Beliefs and Practices 16 A Gadamerian Exploration of Play and Festive in Pasko 1 Introduction 2 Telling the First Christmas Night: Panunuluyan, Panarit, and Pastores 3 Practicing Creative Generosity: Filipino Gift-Giving 4 Communal Spiritual Preparation: From the Eucharistic Novenario to the Midnight Mass 5 Families Bonding Through Blessings on the Table: Noche Buena 6 Gadamer, Play, and Festive 7 The Filipino Christmas Phenomenon as Play: Fusions (and Tensions) 8 Sustaining the Play and Festive by Fusion and Dialogue References 17 Revisiting Indigenous Islamic Practices for Community Healing and Peacebuilding 1 Introduction 2 Indigenous Religious Practice: An Overview 3 Nature of Indigenous Islam 3.1 A Strong Eco-Theology 3.2 A Culture that Adheres to Indigenous Customs and Traditions (‘Urf) 3.3 The Establishment of Indigenous Cultural and Political Structures that Strengthen Islam 4 Indigenous Islam: Knowledge, Transmission, Learning, and Preservation 5 Traditions of Tolerance and Openness 6 The Principle of Ijma or the Consensus of the Community 7 Promotion of Community Healing and Reconciliation 8 Common Regional Indigenous Practices and Perspectives in Southeast Asia 9 Conclusion References 18 Buddhism, Chinese Funeral Rites, and the Theravāda Tradition in Malaysia 1 Introduction 2 Traditional Chinese Funeral Beliefs, Rites, and Practices 3 Buddhist Modernism, Theravāda Temple, and the Buddhist School 4 The Direct Consequence of Meritorious Deeds 5 A Proper Funeral in the Theravāda Tradition 6 Conclusion References 19 An Appropriated Understanding of Theravāda Buddhist Notions of Moral Shame and Moral Dread in Thai Society 1 Introduction 2 What Are Moral Shame and Moral Dread? 2.1 Direct Quotes from the Tipiṭaka 2.2 Interpretations from Theravāda Scholars 3 Excessive Scrupulosity and Its Philosophical Considerations 3.1 What is Excessive Scrupulosity? 3.2 Models of Philosophical Consideration: Causalism vs. Possibilism 4 The Metaphysical Power of Meditative Intentionality 4.1 Mental and Cognitive Therapy with Mindfulness 4.2 George Molnar’s Realism About Disposition and Its Buddhist Application 5 Conclusion References 20 Conflicts Between General Causation and the Theravāda Concept of Kamma in Moral Education 1 Introduction 2 Western and Buddhist Metaphysics of Causation 3 Reward, Punishment, and Kamma 3.1 Kamma and Arbitrariness 3.2 Kamma and Unknowable Events 4 Dependent Co-Arising and Kamma 5 Conclusion References 21 Negotiating the Body in the Slums and the Devotion to the Black Nazarene 1 Introduction 2 Informal Locality/Bodies 3 Discordant Orders 4 Negotiating Faith/s 5 Conclusion References 22 Virtual Catholicism in the Philippines: An Analysis of Technology, Religion, and Kalooban in Time of Isolation 1 Introduction 2 Understanding Space and Technology in the Study of Catholicism 3 Framing Virtual Catholicism in the Philippines 4 PSV in Space and Out of Place 5 Nuestro Padre Jesus Nazareno of Quiapo in the History of Catholicism in the Philippines 6 Performing Sacred Vow in Quiapo 6.1 Pamumuwesto as PSV in Quiapo 6.2 Commutatio as PSV in Quiapo 6.3 Bisa of Pamumuwesto and Commutatio 7 Conclusion References Part IV Religious Diversity 23 Religious Belief and Device Paradigm 1 Introduction 2 The Digital Revolution as a Philosophical Challenge 3 ICTs and Device Paradigm 4 Technology and Vulnerability 5 Religious Belief in Technological Society 6 Conclusion References 24 A Critical Look at Religious Diversity and Responding to Its Challenges 1 Introduction 2 Religious Diversity 3 Exclusivism and Inclusivism 4 Religious Pluralism 5 Responding to the Challenges of Religious Diversity References 25 Epistemic Tolerance and Religious Diversity 1 Introduction 2 Intolerance and Religious Exclusivism 2.1 Intolerance 2.2 Mindless Relativism 3 Epistemic Tolerance and Religious Tolerance 3.1 Religious Tolerance 3.2 Epistemic Tolerance 4 Conciliationism or Tentavism 5 Reasonability and Evidential Equality 5.1 Reasonability 5.2 Evidential Equality and the Uniqueness Thesis 6 Conclusion References 26 A Feminist Reimagining of Mary’s Role in Philippine Colonial Catholicism’s Economy of Salvation Through the Works of Jose Rizal 1 Introduction: The Philippines and Colonial Catholicism During the Time of Rizal 2 The Works of Rizal as a Source of Insight into the Predominant Role of Mary in Christian Devotion and Salvation During the Spanish Colonial Period in the Philippines 3 The Feminine Spiritual Authority of Mary and the Filipina Identity in Rizal’s Time 4 Mary Viewed Through the Lenses of Feminisms and the Feminist Philosophy of Religion 5 A Feminist Reimagining of the Feminine Spiritual Authority of Mary 6 Conclusion: Finding Empowerment in Mary’s Reimagined Feminine Spiritual Authority References 27 Listening to a Different Voice: Gendering Dharma Through Sita of the Ramayana 1 Introduction 2 Two Directions of Dharma 2.1 Dharma as Metaphysical-Cosmological, Abstract, Formalistic 2.2 Dharma as Nuanced, Open, and Context-Sensitive 3 Gendering Dharma Through Sita in Valmiki’s Ramayana 3.1 Carol Gilligan’s Ethics of Care 3.2 Sita as an Ethicist of Care 4 Conclusion: A Gendered Dharma? References Index