Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook, Volume 3 : Mechanical Separations, Distillation, Packed Towers, Liquid-Liquid Extraction, Process Safety Incidents

PETROLEUM REFINING The third volume of a multi-volume set of the most comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of the advances of petroleum refining designs and applications, written by one of the world’s most well-known process engineers, this is a must-have for any chemical, process, or petroleum engineer. This volume continues the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the most significant and recent changes to petroleum refining, presenting the state-of-the-art to the engineer, scientist, or student. This book provides the design of process equipment, such as vessels for the separation of two-phase and three-phase fluids, using Excel spreadsheets, and extensive process safety investigations of refinery incidents, distillation, distillation sequencing, and dividing wall columns. It also covers multicomponent distillation, packed towers, liquid-liquid extraction using UniSim design software, and process safety incidents involving these equipment items and pertinent industrial case studies. Useful as a textbook, this is also an excellent, handy go-to reference for the veteran engineer, a volume no chemical or process engineering library should be without. Written by one of the world’s foremost authorities, this book sets the standard for the industry and is an integral part of the petroleum refining renaissance. It is truly a must-have for any practicing engineer or student in this area. This groundbreaking new volume: Assists engineers in rapidly analyzing problems and finding effective design methods and select mechanical specifications Provides improved design manuals to methods and proven fundamentals of process design with related data and charts Covers a complete range of basic day–to–day petroleum refining operations topics with new materials on significant industry changes Includes extensive Excel spreadsheets for the design of process vessels for mechanical separation of two-phase and three-phase fluids Provides UniSim ®-based case studies for enabling simulation of key processes outlined in the book Helps achieve optimum operations and process conditions and shows how to translate design fundamentals into mechanical equipment specifications Has a related website that includes computer applications along with spreadsheets and concise applied process design flow charts and process data sheets Provides various case studies of process safety incidents in refineries and means of mitigating these from investigations by the US Chemical Safety Board Includes a vast Glossary of Petroleum and Technical Terminology Cover Half-Title Page Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Companion Web Page Dedication Contents Preface Acknowledgments 18. Mechanical Separations 18.1 Particle Size 18.2 Preliminary Separator Selection Guide to Dust Separator Applications Guide to Liquid–Solid Particle Separators 18.3 Gravity Settlers 18.4 Terminal Velocity 18.5 Alternate Terminal Velocity Calculation Pressure Drop 18.6 American Petroleum Institute’s Oil Field Separators 18.7 Liquid/Liquid, Liquid/Solid Gravity Separations, Decanters, and Sedimentation Equipment Thickeners and Settlers 18.8 Horizontal Gravity Settlers or Decanters, Liquid/Liquid Height of Aqueous Layer to the Interface Optimum Vessel Diameter 18.9 Modified Method of Happel and Jordan 18.10 Decanter Guidelines for Successful Decanters 18.11 Impingement Separators Knitted Wire Mesh Mesh Patterns Capacity Determination Fiber Bed/Pad Impingement Eliminators 18.12 Centrifugal Separators Stationary Vane Efficiency Two-Phase Separators Vessel Internals Residence Times Selection of Separators Troubleshooting Gas–Liquid Separators Gas–Liquid Separators Horizontal Versus Vertical Separators Sizing of Vertical and Horizontal Separators Calculation Method for a Vertical Drum Calculation Method for a Horizontal Drum Liquid–Liquid Separation Liquid Holdup and Vapor Space Disengagement Wire Mesh Pad Standards for Horizontal Separators Sizing Horizontal Separators Gas Capacity Constraint Liquid Capacity Constraint Seam-to-Seam Length Slenderness Ratio Procedure for Sizing Horizontal Separators—Half Full Horizontal Separators Sizing Other Than Half Full Liquid Capacity Constraint Sizing Vertical Separators Gas Capacity Constant Liquid Capacity Constraint Seam-to Seam Length Slenderness Ratio Procedure for Sizing Vertical Separators A Case Study Three-Phase Separators Separator Selection Sizing Parameters and Guidelines Separation Setup High, Very High and Low, Very Low Levels for Instrumentation and Control Sizing Three-Phase Oil–Gas Separator Procedure for Vertical Separator Gas Capacity Constraint Settling Settling Oil From Water Phase Retention Time Constraint Seam-to-Seam Length Slenderness Ratio Procedure for Sizing Three-Phase Vertical Separators Horizontal Separator Sizing—Half Full Gas Capacity Constraint Gas Capacity Retention Time Settling Water Droplets From Oil Phase Separating Oil Droplets from Water Phase Seam-to-Seam Length Slenderness Ratio Procedure for Sizing Three-Phase Horizontal Separators—Half-Full Horizontal Separators Sizing Other Than Half-Full Gas Capacity Constraint Retention Time Constraint Settling Equation Constraint A Case Study (UniSim Design) Spherical Separators Operating Problems Foamy Crude Paraffin Sand Liquid Carryover Gas Blowby Emulsion Piping Requirements Cyclone Separators Solid Particle Cyclone Design Cyclone Design Procedure The Equations Saltation Velocity Pressure Drop (ΔP) Critical Particle Diameter Cyclone Design Factors Troubleshooting Cyclone Maloperations Cyclone Collection Efficiency Friction Loss ➀ to ➁ Friction Loss ➁ to ➂ Friction Loss ➂ to ➃ Friction Loss ➃ to ➄ Liquid Cyclone-Type Separator Liquid Cyclone Design (Based on Air–Water at Atmospheric Pressure) Liquid–Solid Cyclone (Hydrocyclones) Separators Solid Particles in Gas/Vapor or Liquid Streams Inertial Centrifugal Separators Scrubbers Cloth or Fabric Bag Separators or Filters Specifications Electrical/Electrostatic Precipitators Electrostatic Precipitator Explosion: A Case Study of an Explosion in the ExxonMobil Torrance, California Refinery’s Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) Control Air Pollution due to a Lacked Safety Instrumentation, Equipment Failure, Safe Operating Limits and Improper Safeguard as Sufficient Hazard Analysis Process Description Key Factors That Contributed to a Flammable Mixture Accumulating Inside of the Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) Key Findings Identified in the CSB Investigation The US Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board (CSB) Board Key Lessons Conclusions The CSB Recommendations Nomenclature Subscripts Greek Symbols References 19. Distillation 19.30 Simulation of a Fractionating Column 19. Distillation 19.1 Distillation Process Performance 19.2 Equilibrium Basic Considerations 19.3 Vapor–Liquid Equilibria 19.4 Activity Coefficients 19.5 Excess Gibbs Energy—GE 19.6 K-Value 19.7 Ideal Systems 19.8 Henry’s Law 19.8.1 Strict Henry’s Law 19.8.2 Simple Henry’s Law 19.9 K-Factor Hydrocarbon Equilibrium Charts 19.10 Non-Ideal Systems 19.11 Thermodynamic Simulation Software Programs 19.12 Vapor Pressure Vapor Pressure Determination Using the Clausius–Clapeyron and the Antoine Equations 19.13 Azeotropic Mixtures 19.14 Bubble Point of Liquid Mixture 19.14.1 Dew Point Calculations The Algorithm Dew Point Calculation 19.15 Equilibrium Flash Computations 19.15.1 Fundamentals 19.15.2 Calculation of Bubble Point and Dew Point The Algorithm The Program 19.16 Degrees of Freedom 19.17 UniSim (Honeywell) Software 19.18 Binary System Material Balance: Constant Molal Overflow Tray to Tray 19.18.1 Conditions of Operation (Usually Fixed) 19.18.2 Flash Vaporization 19.19 Determination of Distillation Operating Pressures 19.20 Condenser Types From a Distillation Column 19.20.1 Total Condenser 19.20.2 Partial Condenser 19.21 Effect of Thermal Condition of Feed 19.22 Effect of Total Reflux, Minimum Number of Plates in a Distillation Column 19.22.1 Fenske Equation: Short-Cut Prediction of Overall Minimum Total Trays in a Column With Total Condenser 19.23 Relative Volatility α Separating Factor in a Vapor–Liquid System 19.24 Rapid Estimation of Relative Volatility 19.25 Estimation of Relative Volatilities Under 1.25 (α < 125) by Ryan 19.26 Estimation of Minimum Reflux Ratio: Infinite Plates 19.27 Calculation of Number of Theoretical Trays at Actual Reflux 19.28 Identification of “Pinch Conditions” on an x-y Diagram at High Pressure 19.29 Distillation Column Design 19.29.1 Design Method for a Plate Column 19.29.2 Continuous Fractionating Column 19.30 Simulation of a Fractionating Column Rectifying Section Stripping Section Actual Operating Line Rectifying Section Equation for Operating Line 19.31 Determination of Number of Theoretical Plates in Fractionating Columns by the Smoker Equations at Constant Relative Volatility (α = constant) The Equations 19.31.1 Application of Smoker’s Method to a Binary Distillation Column 19.32 The Jafarey, Douglas, and McAvoy Equation: Design and Control Summary Overhead Bottoms Relative Volatility: Overhead Conditions Thermal Condition of the Feed at 158°F Minimum Number Tray at Total Reflux Summary Minimum Reflux Ratio 19.33 Number of Theoretical Trays at Actual Reflux Tray Efficiency Actual Trays at Actual Reflux Types of Tray 19.34 Estimating Tray Efficiency in a Distillation Column 19.35 Steam Distillation 19.35.1 Steam Distillation-Continuous Flash, Multicomponent, or Binary Mixture 19.35.2 Steam Distillation-Continuous Differential, Multicomponent, or Binary Mixture 19.35.3 Steam Distillation-Continuous Flash, Two Liquid Phases, Multicomponent, and Binary Mixture 19.35.4 Open Live Steam Distillation—With Fractionation Trays, Binary Mixture 19.36 Distillation with Heat Balance of Component Mixture 19.36.1 Unequal Molal Overflow 19.36.2 Ponchon–Savarit Method-Binary Mixtures 19.37 Multicomponent Distillation Key Components 19.37.1 Minimum Reflux Ratio-Infinite Plates 19.37.2 The Fenske’s Method for Total Reflux [142] 19.37.3 The Gilliland Method for Number of Equilibrium Stages [90] 19.37.4 Underwood’s Method [88, 144] 19.36.5 Equations for Describing Gilliland’s Graph 19.37.6 Operating Reflux Ratio, R 19.37.7 Feed Tray Location 19.37.8 Kirkbride’s Feed Plate Location [153] 19.37.9 Algebraic Plate-to-Plate Method 19.37.10 Erbar–Maddox Method [158] 19.37.11 Underwood Algebraic Method: Adjacent Key Systems [144] 19.37.12 Underwood Algebraic Method: Adjacent Key Systems; Variable α 19.37.13 Underwood Algebraic Method: Split Key Systems: Constant Volatility [144] 19.37.14 Minimum Reflux Colburn Method: Pinch Temperatures [161] 19.38 Scheibel–Montross Empirical: Adjacent Key Systems: Constant or Variable Volatility [162] 19.39 Minimum Number of Trays: Total Reflux−Constant Volatility 19.39.1 Theoretical Number of Trays at Operating Reflux of a Multicomponent Mixture 19.39.2 Actual Number of Trays 19.39.3 Estimation of Multicomponent Recoveries 19.39.4 Component Recovery Nomograph 19.39.5 Shortcut Methods: Reflux Ratio and Stages 19.40 Smith–Brinkley (SB) Method Application Minimum Reflux Ratio and Minimum Number of Stages by Simulation Optimization of the Feed Stage by Simulation 19.41 Retrofit Design of Distillation Columns 19.42 Tray-by-Tray for Multicomponent Mixtures Procedure A. Rectifying Section B. Stripping Section 19.43 Tray-by-Tray Calculation of a Multicomponent Mixture Using a Digital Computer Determine Overhead Temperature Determine Bottoms Temperature (Bubble Point) 19.44 Thermal Condition of Feed 19.45 Minimum Reflux-Underwood Method, Determination of αAvg for Multicomponent Mixture Operating Reflux and Theoretical Trays—Gilliland Plot Tray-by-Tray Calculation—Ackers and Wade Method Stripping Section Tray Efficiency 19.46 Heat Balance-Adjacent Key Systems with Sharp Separations, Constant Molal Overflow Total Condenser Duty Reboiler Duty 19.47 Stripping Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOC) from Water with Air 19.48 Rigorous Plate-to-Plate Calculation (Sorel Method) 19.49 Multiple Feeds and Side Streams for a Binary Mixture Side Stream Columns 19.50 Chou and Yaws Method 19.51 Optimum Reflux Ratio and Optimum Number of Trays Calculations Correlations Procedure Input Data Flow Regime in Trays 19.52 Tower Sizing for Valve Trays The Equations 19.52.1 Diameter of Sieve/Valve Trays (F Factor) 19.52.2 Diameter of Sieve/Valve Trays (Lieberman) Tray Geometry Sizing 19.53 Troubleshooting, Predictive Maintenance, and Controls for Distillation Columns Fractionating Tray Stability Diagrams Areas of Unacceptable Operation Spray Entrainment Flooding Froth Entrainment Flooding Downcomer Backup Flooding Downcomer Choke Flooding Foaming Flooding Entrainment Weeping/Dumping Fractionation Problem Solving Considerations 19.53.1 Common Problems in Distillation Columns [225] Typical Pressure Drops (Approximate) Trays Pressure Survey Verify the Column’s Operations A Case Study 19.54 Distillation Sequencing with Columns Having More than Two Products 19.54.1 Th ermally Coupled Distillation Sequence Advantages and Disadvantages to Divided Wall Columns 19.54.2 Practical Constraints in Sequencing Options 19.54.3 Choice of Sequence for Distillation Columns 19.55 Heat Integration of Distillation Columns Heat Integration in a Crude Distillation Unit Column Overhead Heat Integration Integrated Atmospheric and Vacuum Distillation Units 19.56 Capital Cost Considerations for Distillation Columns 19.57 The Pinch Design Approach to Inventing a Network 19.58 Appropriate Placement and Integration of Distillation Columns 19.59 Heat Integration of Distillation Columns: Summary Maximization of Crude Preheat 19.60 Common Installation Errors in Distillation Columns Calculation of Nozzle Size [225] Crude Column Simulation and Design Tray Efficiencies and System Factors to be Considered for Design Advanced Distillation Technologies Case Study 1 Case Study 2 Case Study 3 Nomenclature: Distillation Process Performance Greek Symbols Subscripts References Bibliography 20. Packed Towers and Liquid–Liquid Extraction Packed Towers 20.1 Shell 20.2 Random Packing 20.3 Packing Supports 20.4 Liquid Distribution 20.5 Packing Installation Dumped 20.5.1 Packing Selection and Performance 20.6 Contacting Efficiency, Expressed as Kga, HTU, HETP 20.7 Packing Size 20.8 Pressure Drop 20.9 Materials of Construction 20.10 Particle versus Compact Preformed Structured Packings 20.10.1 Fouling of Packing 20.11 Minimum Liquid Wetting Rates 20.12 Loading Point−Loading Region 20.13 Flooding Point 20.14 Foaming Liquid Systems 20.15 Surface Tension Effects 20.16 Packing Factors 20.17 Recommended Design Capacity and Pressure Drop 20.18 Pressure Drop Design Criteria and Guide: Random Packings Only 20.19 Effects of Physical Properties 20.20 Performance Comparisons 20.20.1 Prediction of Maximum Operating Capacity (MOC) 20.21 Capacity Basis for Design 20.21.1 Flooding 20.21.2 Operating and Design Conditions 20.22 Proprietary Random Packing Design Guides Norton Intalox® Metal Tower Packing (IMTP®) Capacity Correlation 20.22.1 Packing Efficiency/Performance for IMTP Packing Minimum Reflux Theoretical Plates vs. Reflux Nutter Ring Capacity Correlation 20.22.2 Dumped Packing: Gas–Liquid System Below Loading 20.22.3 Dumped Packing: Loading and Flooding Regions, General Design Correlations 20.22.4 Dumped Packing: Pressure Drop at Flooding 20.25.5 Dumped Packing: Pressure Drop Below and at Flood Point, Liquid Continuous Range 20.22.6 Pressure Drop Across Packing Supports and Redistribution Plates 20.23 Liquid Hold-Up 20.23.1 Correction Factors for Liquids Other Than Water 20.24 Packing Wetted Area 20.25 Effective Interfacial Area 20.26 Entrainment from Packing Surface Entrainment Weights 20.27 Structured Packing Preliminary Sizing for ACS Industries Series Woven X/S Knitted Wire Mesh Structured Packing HETP for ACS Series X-200 Structured Packing Pressure Drop (Estimated) Koch Kulzer Structured Packing [66] Column Sizing for Koch Sulzer Packing Top Section Nomenclature Koch Flexipac® Structured Packing Intalox High-Performance Metal Structural Packing Gempack® Structured Packing; Glitsch, Inc Grid Packing: Nutter Engineering Koch Flexigrid® Packing: Koch Engineering Co. Flexigrid® Style 2 High Capacity Glitsch-GridTM [122] 20.28 Structured Packing: Technical Performance Features Flooding Pressure Drop 20.28.1 Guidelines for Structured Packings 20.28.2 Structured Packing Scale-Up 20.29 New Generalized Pressure Drop Correlation Charts 20.30 Mass and Heat Transfer in Packed Tower 20.31 Number of Transfer Units, NOG, NOL For Concentrated Solutions and More General Application 20.32 Gas and Liquid-Phase Coefficients, kG and kL 20.33 Height of a Transfer Unit, HOG, HOL, HTU Height of Overall Transfer Unit Height of Individual Transfer Unit Estimation of Height of Liquid Film Transfer Units Estimation of Height of Gas Film Transfer Units Estimation of Diffusion Coefficients to Gases 20.34 Distillation in Packed Towers 20.34.1 Height Equivalent to a Theoretical Plate (HETP) 20.34.2 HETP Guide Lines 20.34.3 Transfer Unit 20.35 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 20.35.1 BTX Recovery by Solvent Extraction 20.36 Process Parameters 20.36.1 Procedure 20.37 Solvents Selection for the Extraction Unit Viscosity Index Improvement 20.38 Phenol Extraction Process of Lubes 20.38.1 Process Description 20.39 Furfural Extraction Process 20.40 Dispersed-Phase Droplet Size Viscosity 20.40.1 Surface Wetting 20.40.2 Axial Mixing Extractor Flow Patterns 20.40.3 Flooding 20.41 Theory 20.42 Nernst’s Distribution Law 20.43 Tie Lines 20.44 Phase Diagrams 20.45 Countercurrent Extractors 20.45.1 Kremser Equation 20.46 Extraction Equipment Mixer-Settler Advantages Disadvantages Columns Rotating Disc Contactor Advantages Disadvantages Case Study 2 Solution References Glossary of Petroleum and Petrochemical Technical Terminologies Appendix D Appendix F: Equilibrium K-Values About the Author Index Also of Interest This Third Volume In The Petroleum Refining Set, This Book Continues The Most Up-to-date And Comprehensive Coverage Of The Most Significant And Recent Changes To Petroleum Refining, Presenting The State-of-the-art To The Engineer, Scientist, Or Student. This Book Provides The Design Of Process Equipment, Such As Vessels For The Separation Of Two-phase And Three-phase Fluids, Using Excel Spreadsheets, And Extensive Process Safety Investigations Of Refinery Incidents, Distillation, Distillation Sequencing, And Dividing Wall Columns. It Also Covers Multicomponent Distillation, Packed Towers, Liquid-liquid Extraction Using Unisim Design Software, Shell And Tube Heat Exchangers, Double Pipe Heat Exchangers, Air-cooled Exchangers, Energy Management And Pinch Analysis, And Process Safety Incidents Involving These Equipment Items And Pertinent Industrial Case Studies. Use Of Unisim Design (unisim Ste) Software Is Illustrated In Further Elucidation Of The Design Of Shell And Tube Heat Exchangers, Condensers, And Unisim Exchangernet R470 For The Design Of Heat Exchanger Networks Using Pinch Analysis. This Is Important For Determining Minimum Cold And Hot Utility Requirements, Composite Curves Of Hot And Cold Streams, The Grand Composite Curve, The Heat Exchanger Network, And The Relationship Between Operating Cost Index Target And The Capital Cost Index Target Against Δtmin. Useful As A Textbook, This Is Also An Excellent, Handy Go-to Reference For The Veteran Engineer, A Volume No Chemical Or Process Engineering Library Should Be Without. Written By One Of The World’s Foremost Authorities, This Book Sets The Standard For The Industry And Is An Integral Part Of The Petroleum Refining Renaissance. It Is Truly A Must-have For Any Practicing Engineer Or Student In This Area.