Perspectives on the Marine Animal Forests of the World

« Marine Animal Forests (MAFs) are spread all over the world. Composed by suspension feeding organisms (e.g. corals, gorgonians, sponges, bryozoans, bivalves, etc.), MAFs constitute a vast number of marine ecosystems such as coral reefs, cold water corals, sponge grounds, bivalve beds, etc. The surface covered by these systems is prominent (at the scale of the oceans of the planet), though poorly known. In a previous book (Marine Animal Forests, the ecology of benthic biodiversity hotspots), several aspects of the MAFs were described and discussed, building the basis for a holistic approach with the aim of putting these shallow and deep sea ecosystems under a common umbrella. The main target of the present book is to identify and address important topics which were not covered in the previous three volumes. Bryozoans or Polychaeta, for example, are treated in this volume, as well as hydrothermal vents ecosystems and submarine caves, the chemical ecology in MAFs or the nursery effect on these ecosystems. The vastity of the MAF concept opens new insights in the biology, physiology, biodiversity of the organisms structuring these highly biodiverse ecosystems and on the dangers threatening them (such as microplastics or the role of invasive species as an impact of their trophic ecology or distribution). In a fast changing world, in which the complexity of MAFs is at risk, we propose an in-depth analysis of many aspects that may be inspirational for future research lines in marine biology and ecology. »-- Quatrième de couverture Preface Contents The Coral Tree at the End of the World: Introductory Notes to Coralline Mythology and Folklore from the Indian and Pacific Oce... 1 Introduction 2 Coral as Landscape 3 Coral as Sacred Place 4 Coral as Being 5 Conclusions References The Marine Animal Forests of South Africa: Importance for Bioregionalization and Marine Spatial Planning 1 Introduction 2 Oceanography, Biogeography and Biodiversity of Mainland South Africa ́s Exclusive Economic Zone 3 Marine Animal Forest Ecosystems: Marine Benthic Eco-engineers in South Africa 3.1 Sponge Grounds 3.2 Shallow-Water Subtropical Coral Communities 3.3 Cold-Water Coral Reefs and Coral Communities 3.4 Octocoral Gardens 3.5 Sea Anemones 3.6 Bryozoan Thickets 3.7 Ascidians 4 Threats to South African Marine Animal Forests and Their Mitigation 4.1 Seabed Impacts Caused by Offshore Fishing and Mining in South Africa 4.2 Climate Change 5 Identifying and Protecting Important Areas of Marine Habitat and Biodiversity 5.1 Marine Protected Areas 5.2 Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas and Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems 5.3 Marine Spatial Planning 6 Conclusion References Coral and Reef Fish Communities in the Thermally Extreme Persian/Arabian Gulf: Insights into Potential Climate Change Effects 1 Coral Reefs Around the Globe Are Facing Major Challenges in the Face of Climate Change, with Changing Environmental Conditio... 2 The Gulf Is the World ́s Hottest Sea Each Summer and Is, Thus, a Natural Laboratory to Understand How Climate Change Might Af... 3 The Cost of Surviving in an Extreme Environment Is Low Diversity and Limited Three-Dimensional Structure of Corals 4 With a Limited Reef Framework Comes Low Diversity, Abundance, Biomass, Size at Maturity of Fishes, and Different Functional ... 5 Today ́s Gulf Coral Communities Can Offer Insights into What Other Reefs Around the Globe May Look Like in the Future References Marginal Reefs in the Anthropocene: They Are Not Noah ́s Ark 1 Introduction 2 Marginal Reefs (MRs) 3 Stability of Marginal Reefs 3.1 Resistance and Resilience: Core Concepts of Reef Systems 3.2 Lower than Expected: Vulnerability to Pressures and Thresholds of Resistance of Marginal Reefs 3.2.1 Turbid-Zone Reefs 3.2.2 High-Temperature and High-Latitude Reefs 3.2.3 Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems 4 Refugia Potential of Marginal Reefs 4.1 Refugia: Right Concepts to Solve the Misunderstanding 4.2 Refugia for Whom? Dimensions of Reef Biodiversity 4.3 Finding Refugia Areas 5 Management for Marginal Reef Persistence 6 Concluding Thoughts References Animal Forests in Submarine Caves 1 Introduction 2 Biostructures in Submarine Caves and Variability of Their Composition 2.1 Type 1: Coralligenous Type 2.2 Type 2: Other Bioconstructions 2.3 Type 3: Biostalactites 3 The Animal Forests of Submarine Caves 4 Perspectives References The Tubeworm Forests of Hydrothermal Vents and Cold Seeps 1 Introduction 1.1 The Deep-Sea Setting 1.1.1 Chemosynthesis 1.2 Forests in Environments of Chemosynthesis 2 Diversity and Distribution of Tubeworms 2.1 What Are Vestimentiferans? 2.2 Distribution of Hydrothermal Vent Tubeworms 2.3 Distribution of Methane/Cold Seep Tubeworms 2.4 Intersecting Ecosystems 3 Nature of the ``Trees in the Forest ́ ́ 3.1 Siboglinid Biology 3.1.1 The Tubes 3.2 Extreme Age in Seep Tubeworms 4 The Tubeworm Forest Habitat 4.1 Formation of the Vent Tubeworm Habitat 4.2 ``Forest ́ ́ Architecture 4.3 Features of the Vent Tubeworm Canopy Habitat 4.4 The Seep Tubeworm Forest 5 The Forest Denizens 5.1 A Specialized Fauna 5.2 Character of the Inhabitants 5.3 Assemblage Structure 5.4 Species Interactions 6 Temporal Change in the Forest 6.1 Recruitment of Vestimentiferans 6.2 Arrival of the Denizens 6.3 Export of Productivity 6.4 Senescence and Termination 7 Tubeworm Forests and Humans 7.1 Fundamental Knowledge of Life Processes 7.2 Genetic Resources and Potential 7.3 Anthropogenic Impacts 8 Summary References Bryozoans: The `Forgotten ́ Bioconstructors 1 Introduction 2 Bryozoa: A Brief Review 3 Fossil Bryozoan Bioconstructions 4 Recent Bryozoan Bioconstructions 5 Mineralization Patterns Through Time 6 Bryozoan Bioconstructions Under Climate Change 7 The Role and Potential of `Forgotten ́ Bioconstructions in Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies 8 Conclusions References Polychaetes as Habitat Former: Structure and Function 1 Introduction 2 Polychaetes Forming Biogenic Structures 2.1 Reef Building Polychaetes 2.2 Soft Bottom Polychaetes Engineers 3 Polychaete Biogenic Structure Functionalities 3.1 Habitat Formers Building Biogenic Reefs 3.2 Polychaete Aggregations in Soft Bottoms 4 Temporal Variations: Persistence, Degeneration and Recovery 5 Perspectives in Conservation: Sensitivity and Threats 6 Conclusions Literature Chemical War in Marine Animal Forests: Natural Products and Chemical Interactions 1 Introduction 2 Interactions and Natural Products 2.1 Chemical Ecology 2.2 Reproduction, Settlement, and Recruitment 2.3 Habitat Specificity 3 Chemical Defenses 3.1 Types of Chemical Defenses and Potential Uses 3.2 Chemical Defenses in the Different Taxa 3.3 Antifouling and Antimicrobial Defenses 3.4 Geographical Considerations 4 Evolution and Chemical Theories 4.1 Chemical Defense Theories 4.2 Coevolution 4.3 Colors and the Role of Pigments 5 The Role of Microorganisms 6 Chemical Ecology and Global Change 7 Conclusions and Future Directions References The Nursery Role of Marine Animal Forests 1 Structured Habitats and the Nursery Role 2 Approaches for the Study of MAF Nurseries 3 Nurseries Across Space and Time 3.1 An Overview on the Nursery Role of Short-Lived Taxa of Marine Animal Forests 3.2 Nurseries in Long-Lasting Marine Animal Forests 3.2.1 Cold Water Corals Scleractinia Antipatharia Alcyonacea and Pennatulacea (Octocorallia) 3.2.2 Porifera 4 Conclusion and Perspectives References Marine Animal Forests as Carbon Immobilizers or Why We Should Preserve These Three-Dimensional Alive Structures 1 Introduction 2 Calculation of C Immobilization: Extrapolations and Limitations 2.1 The Carbon Sink Polemic: Coral Reefs 2.2 How Much Time Immobilized or Sequestered? 2.3 Methods to Extrapolate C Immobilization 2.4 Seasonality and C Immobilization 3 How Much C Is Stored? 3.1 Comparison with Other Species/Ecosystems 3.2 Future of C Sinks Due to Changes in Food Availability and Climate Change 4 How We Transformed C Immobilization Through the Time: Some Interesting Stories 4.1 Terrestrial Forests 4.2 Coral Reef Stories 4.3 Emperor Sea Mountain Story 4.4 Red Coral Story 4.5 Oyster Beds 5 Who Is Destroying the MAF C Sinks? 5.1 Bottom Trawling in the Continental Shelf and Deep-Sea Habitats 5.2 Deep-Sea Mining 5.3 Coastal Transformations 5.4 Climate Change 5.5 Are We Losing an Ally? 6 Preservation and Restoration: Challenges and Some New Ideas 6.1 Conservation Measures for Marine Animal Forest Carbon Sinks 6.2 May MAF Restoration Be Part of the Solution for C Immobilization and Biodiversity Enhancement? 6.3 What If We Engage People for Active Restoration Plans? The Role of Artificial Reefs and Active Restoration in C Immobiliza... 6.4 Climate Change Mitigation Using Deep MAF Restoration 7 The Whole Concept: Toward a Recovery of C Immobilization in the Sea References From Trees to Octocorals: The Role of Self-Thinning and Shading in Underwater Animal Forests 1 Octocorals and the Future of Coral Reefs 2 Bridging the Gap: From Trees to Octocorals 3 Self-Thinning 4 Density Dependence and Canopy Effect 5 Shading 6 Future Directions References Invasive Alien Species and Their Effects on Marine Animal Forests 1 Introduction 2 Theoretical Considerations 3 Historical and Evolutionary Considerations 4 Role of Reproduction Strategies 5 Vectors and Pathways 6 Overview of Marine Invasive Groups 6.1 Sponges 6.2 Cnidarians 6.3 Bryozoans 6.4 Polychaetes 6.5 Barnacles 6.6 Bivalves 6.7 Ascidians 6.8 Algae 6.9 Fish 7 Chemical Ecology 8 Microbial Ecology 9 Formers of Novel MAFs 10 Case Studies 10.1 Vermetid Reefs 10.2 Coral Reefs 10.3 Temperate Reefs 10.4 Mediterranean Coralligenous Ecosystem 10.5 Carijoa 11 Conclusions, Perspectives, and Challenges for Future Research References Plastics: An Additional Threat for Coral Ecosystems 1 Introduction 2 To What Extent Are Coral Reefs Exposed to Plastic Litter? 3 What Are the Effects of Plastics on Coral Physiology? 4 What Is the Ecological Risk for Coral Ecosystems? 5 Further Directions References Visual Methods for Monitoring Mesophotic-to-Deep Reefs and Animal Forests: Finding a Compromise Between Analytical Effort and ... 1 Introduction 2 Processing Techniques of Benthic Visual Surveys 3 Frame-Based Video Subsamplings: A Methods Comparison 3.1 Method Accuracy 3.1.1 Substrate Cover Extent 3.1.2 Taxonomic Composition 3.1.3 The Influence of Survey Velocity 3.2 Method Strengths and Weaknesses 3.3 Future Directions References Advances in the Marine Animal Forests Scientific Outreach and Citizen Science 1 Introduction 2 Citizen Science: A Change in the Conservation Paradigm 2.1 Amateur Science and Environmental Education 2.2 Understanding the Concept 3 Citizen Science in Marine Animal Forests 3.1 Benefits for the Inclusion of Citizen Science in MAFs Research 4 Challenges 5 Conclusions References