Part 2: The Conceptual Completion and Extensions of Quantum Mechanics 1932-1941. Epilogue: Aspects of the Further Development of Quantum Theory 1942-1999:

quantum Theory, Together With The Principles Of Special And General Relativity, Constitute A Scientific Revolution That Has Profoundly Influenced The Way In Which We Think About The Universe And The Fundamental Forces That Govern It. The Historical Development Of Quantum Theory Is A Definitive Historical Study Of That Scientific Work And The Human Struggles That Accompanied It From The Beginning. Drawing Upon Such Materials As The Resources Of The Archives For The History Of Quantum Physics, The Niels Bohr Archives, And The Archives And Scientific Correspondence Of The Principal Quantum Physicists, As Well As Jagdish Mehra's Personal Discussions Over Many Years With Most Of The Architects Of Quantum Theory, The Authors Have Written A Rigorous Scientific History Of Quantum Theory In A Deeply Human Context. This Multivolume Work Presents A Rich Account Of An Intellectual Triumph: A Unique Analysis Of The Creative Scientific Process. The Historical Development Of Quantum Theory Is Science, History, And Biography, All Wrapped In The Story Of A Great Human Enterprise. Its Lessons Will Be An Aid To Those Working In The Sciences And Humanities Alike. Title 3 Copyright 4 Contents 5 Chapter IV. The Conceptual Completion and the Extensions of Quantum Mechanics (1932-1941) 9 Introduction 9 IV.1 The Causality Debate (1929-1935) 16 (a) Introduction: The Principle of Causality in Quantum Theory 16 (b) Heisenberg's Discussions Concerning the Positivism of the 'Vienna Circle' (1929-1932) 21 (c) The Indeterminacy Relations for Relativistic Quantum Fields (1929-1933) 30 (d) The Continuation of the Debate on Causality with the Berlin Physicists (1929-1935) 41 IV.2 The Debate on the Completeness of Quantum Mechanics and Its Description of Reality (1931-1936) 51 (a) Introduction 51 (b) From Inconsistency to Incompleteness of Quantum Mechanics: The EPR Paradox (1931-1935) 55 (c) The Response of the Quantum Physicists, Notably, Bohr and Heisenberg to EPR (1935) 63 (d) Erwin Schroedinger Joins Albert Einstein: The Cat Paradox (1935-1936) 76 (e) Reality and the Quantum-Mechanical Description (1935-1936) 85 IV.3 New Elementary Particles in Nuclear and Cosmic-Ray Physics (1929-1937) 97 (a) Introduction: 'Pure Theory' Versus 'Experiment and Theory' 97 (b) The Theoretical Prediction of Dirac's 'Holes' and 'Monopoles' (1928-1931) 110 (c) The Discovery of New Elementary Particles of Matter and Antimatter (1930-1933) 123 (d) Quantum Mechanics of the Atomic Nucleus and Beta-Decay (1931-1934) 139 (e) Universal Nuclear Forces and Yukawa's New Intermediate Mass Particle (1933-1937) 160 IV.4 Solid-State, Low-Temperature, and Relativistic High-Density Physics (1930-1941) 175 (a) Introduction 175 (b) New American and European Schools of Solid-State Physics (1933-1937) 178 (c) Low-Temperature Physics and Quantum Degeneracy (1928-1941) 195 (d) Toward Astrophysics: Matter Under High Pressures and High Temperatures (1926-1939) 215 IV.5 High-Energy Physics: Elementary Particles and Nuclear Reactions (1932-1942) 236 (a) Introduction 236 (b) Between Hope and Despair: Progress in Quantum Electrodynamics (1930-1938) 240 (c) New Fields Describing Elementary Particles, Their Properties, and Interactions (1934-1941) 273 (d) Nuclear Forces and Reactions: Transmutation, Fusion, and Fission of Nuclei (1934-1942) 302 Epilogue: Aspects of the Further Development of Quantum Theory (1942-1999) 353 1. The Elementary Constitution of Matter: Subnuclear Particles and Fundamental Interactions 358 1.1 Some Progress in Relativistic Quantum Field Theory and the Formulation of the Alternative S-Matrix Theory (1941-1947) 362 (a) E.C.G. Stueckelberg: 'New Mechanics (1941)' 362 (b) The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics (Feynman and Tomonaga, 1942-1943) 362 (c) Heisenberg's S-Matrix (1942-1947) 368 1.2 The Renormalized Quantum Electrodynamics (1946-1950) 371 (a) The Shelter Island Conference (1947) 371 (b) Hans Bethe and the Initial Calculation of the Lamb Shift (1947) 376 (c) The Anomalous Magnetic Moment of the Electron (1947) 381 (d) The Pocono Conference (1948) 389 (e) Vacuum Polarization (1948) 395 (f) The Michigan Summer School: Freeman Dyson at Julian Schwinger's Lectures (1948) 397 (g) The Immediate Impact of Schwinger's Lectures (1948) 400 (h) Schwinger's Covariant Approach (1948-1949) 402 (i) Gauge Invariance and Vacuum Polarization (1950) 412 (j) The Quantum Action Principle (1951) 419 (k) Tomonaga Writes to Oppenheimer (April 1948) 423 (l) Tomonaga's Papers (1946-1948) 424 (m) Feynman's Preparations up to 1947 426 (n) Richard Feynman after the Shelter Island Conference (1947-1950) 429 (o) Freeman Dyson and the Equivalence of the Radiation Theories of Schwinger, Tomonaga, and Feynman (1949-1952) 437 (p) The Impact of Dyson's Work 442 (q) Feynman and Schwinger: Cross Fertilization 444 1.3 New Elementary Particles and Their Interactions (1947-1964) 445 1.4 The Problems of Strong-Interaction Theory: Fields, S-Matrix, Currents, and the Quark Model (1952-1969) 456 1.5 The 'Standard Model' and Beyond (1964-1999) 463 (a) The 'Electroweak Theory' (1964-1983) 464 (a1) The 'Intermediate Weak Boson' 464 (a2) Spontaneous Symmetry-Breaking and the Higgs Mechanism 465 (a3) The Weinberg-Salam Model and Its Renormalization 465 (a4) Neutral Currents and the Discovery of the Weak Bosons 466 (b) Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) (1965-1995) 468 (b1) The Discovery of Physical Quarks 468 (b2) Asymptotic Freedom of Strong Interaction Forces 469 (b3) Quantum Chromodynamics 470 (b4) The Completion of QCD 471 (c) Beyond the Standard Model (1970-1999) 472 2. Quantum Effects in the Physical Laboratory and in the Universe 476 2.1 The Industrial and Celestial Laboratories (1947-1957) 477 (a) The Transistor in the Industrial Laboratory (1947-1952) 477 (b) The Celestial Laboratory (1946-1957) 481 2.2 The Application of Known Quantum Effects (1947-1995) 483 (a) The Casimir Effect and Its Applications (1947-1978) 483 (b) The Maser and the Laser (1955-1961) 491 (c) The Bose-Einstein Condensation (1980-1995) 494 2.3 Superfluidity, Superconductivity, and Further Progress in Condensed Matter Physics (1947-1974) 497 (a) Rotons and Other Quasi-Particles (1947-1957) 497 (b) The Solution of the Riddle of Superconductivity (1950-1959) 501 (c) Critical Phenomena and the Renormalization Group (1966-1974) 508 2.4 New Quantum Effects in Condensed Matter Physics (1958-1986) 511 (a) The Moessbauer Effect (1958) 511 (b) Experimental Proof of Magnetic Flux Quantization (1961) 513 (c) The Josephson Effect (1962) 514 (d) Superfluid Helium III: Prediction and Verification (1961-1972) 515 (e) The Quantum Hall Effect and Lower Dimensional Quantization (1980) 517 (f) High-Temperature Superconductors (1986) 519 2.5 Stellar Evolution, the Neutrino Crisis, and 3 K Radiation (1957-1999) 521 (a) Stellar Evolution and New Types of Stars (1957-1971) 523 (b) The Solar Neutrino Problem and the Neutrino Mass (1964-1999) 525 (c) 3K Radiation and the Early Universe (1965-1990) 528 3. New Aspects of the Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics 531 3.1 The Copenhagen Interpretation Revisited and Extended (1948-1966) 535 3.2 Causality, Hidden Variables, and Locality (1952-1968) 546 (a) The Hidden Variables and von Neumann's Mathematical Disproof Revisited (1952-1963) 550 (b) The EPR Paradox Revisited, Bell's Inequalities, and Another Return to Hidden Variables (1957-1968) 554 (c) The Aharonov-Bohm Effect (1959-1963) 560 3.3 Further Interpretations and Experimental Confirmation of the Standard Quantum Mechanics (1957-1999) 562 (a) The Many-World Interpretation and Other Proposals (1957-1973) 562 (b) Tests of EPR-Type Gedankenexperiments: Hidden Variables or Nonlocality (1972-1986) 567 (c) The Process of Disentanglement of States and Schroedinger's Cat: An Experimental Demonstration (1981-1999) 573 Conclusion: Four Generations of Quantum Physicists 582 References 593 Author Index 779 Subject Index for Volumes 1 to 6 807 pt. 1. The probability interpretation and the statistical transformation theory, the physical interpretation, and the empirical and mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics, 1926-1932 pt. 2. The conceptual completion and the extensions of quantum mechanics, 1932-1941. Epilogue, aspects of the further development of quantum thoery, 1942-1999. Quantum Theory, together with the principles of special and general relativity, constitutes a scientific revolution that has profoundly influenced the way in which we think about the universe and the fundamental forces that govern it. This work presents an analysis of the creative scientific process.